Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus by Free-Living Wild Animals in Spain

The presence of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) was analyzed in different free-living wild animals to assess the genetic diversity and predominant genotypes on each animal species. Samples were taken from the skin and/or nares, and isolates were characterized by spa typing, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The proportion of MSSA carriers were 5.00, 22.93, 19.78, and 17.67% in Eurasian griffon vulture, Iberian ibex, red deer, and wild boar, respectively (P = 0.057). A higher proportion of isolates (P = 0.000) were recovered from nasal samples (78.51%) than skin samples (21.49%), but the 9.26% of red deer and 18.25% of wild boar would have been undetected if only nasal samples had been tested. Sixty-three different spa types were identified, including 25 new spa types. The most common were t528 (43.59%) in Iberian ibex, t548 and t11212 (15.79% and 14.04%) in red deer, and t3750 (36.11%) in wild boar. By MLST, 27 STs were detected, of which 12 had not been described previously. The most frequent were ST581 for Iberian ibex (48.72%), ST425 for red deer (29.82%), and ST2328 for wild boar (42.36%). Isolates from Eurasian griffon vulture belong to ST133. Host specificity has been observed for the most frequent spa types and STs (P = 0.000). The highest resistance percentage was found against benzylpenicillin (average, 22.2%), although most of the S. aureus isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobial tested. Basically, MSSA isolates were different from those MRSA isolates previously detected in the same animal species.     

Combined evaluation of bovine tuberculosis in wild boar (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis>) and red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) from Central-East Portugal

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), widely considered a disease of livestock, can also affect large game species despite their poorly understood role in the epidemiology of the endemic state of the disease. The Idanha-a-Nova County, situated in the eastern region of central Portugal, is one of the most important regions for large game hunting activity. In order to investigate the role of large game and the presence of bTB in Idanha-a-Nova, 132 wild boar (Sus scrofa) and 339 red deer (Cervus elaphus) were inspected for bTB-compatible lesions (bTBCL) during the 2008–2009 hunting season. Tissue samples with bTBCL were collected and processed for bacteriological confirmation and spoligotyping of Mycobacterium bovis isolates. In wild boar, bTB lesions were single, mostly calcified (21/29, 72.4%) and situated in the mandibular lymph nodes. Lesions were more severe and largely non-calcified (36/40, 90%) in red deer. Wild boar presented a consistently higher bTB infection rate than the red deer; however, the difference was only significant in the southern B area. This area was significantly affected by bTB for both animal species (up to 72.7% in wild boar and 34.8% in red deer) and requires the urgent implementation of intervention measures to contain the disease. Wild boar may assume an important role in the emergence of new disease foci in distant areas that infected red deer cannot reach. Spoligotyping of M. bovis isolates grouped the strains into three clusters, revealing patterns common to wild boar, red deer, and also to local cattle, indicating possible transmission among different animal species.     

Lead exposure in free-flying turkey vultures is associated with big game hunting in California

Predatory and scavenging birds are at risk of lead exposure when they feed on animals injured or killed by lead ammunition. While lead ammunition has been banned from waterfowl hunting in North America for almost two decades, lead ammunition is still widely used for hunting big game and small game animals. In this study, we evaluated the association between big game hunting and blood lead concentration in an avian scavenger species that feeds regularly on large mammals in California. We compared blood lead concentration in turkey vultures within and outside of the deer hunting season, and in areas with varying wild pig hunting intensity. Lead exposure in turkey vultures was significantly higher during the deer hunting season compared to the off-season, and blood lead concentration was positively correlated with increasing wild pig hunting intensity. Our results link lead exposure in turkey vultures to deer and wild pig hunting activity at these study sites, and we provide evidence that spent lead ammunition in carrion poses a significant risk of lead exposure to scavengers.     

Exposure of Threatened Accipitridae to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mycobacterium bovis</Emphasis> Calls for Active Surveillance

Anthropogenic activities have cumulatively led to the dramatic decline of world populations of vultures that currently face serious survival challenges in several regions of the world. In Portugal, the three resident species qualify as endangered and are under conservation efforts, mainly in the central east and south-east regions, where habitat protection and artificial feeding stations were implemented. Concurrently, the areas under protection are highly affected by tuberculosis (TB) in cattle and wild ungulates, whose potentially infected carcasses may naturally or artificially be used as feed by local vultures. In this work, we opportunistically surveyed populations of Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) and Eurasian black vulture (Aegypius monachus) for the presence of Mycobacterium bovis. Nine pathogenic mycobacteria, including one M. bovis isolate, were cultured from the oropharynx of nine of the surveyed vultures (n = 55), sampled in recovery centres or in artificial feeding stations. Genotyping of the M. bovis strain indicated spoligotype SB0121, the most frequent type in Portugal, and a unique MIRU–VNTR profile that differed in two loci from the profiles of SB0121 bovine and deer strains from the same geographical area. The M. bovis-positive griffon exhibited poor clinical condition when admitted to the recovery centre; however, clinical evidence of TB was not present. Although the significance of M. bovis isolation in this vulture specimen could not be ascertained and despite the accepted notion that vultures are naturally resistant to microbial pathogens, the sanitary follow-up of Accipitridae vulture populations in TB-hotspot areas is essential to safeguard ongoing conservation efforts and also to evaluate the suitability of standing legislation on deliberate supplementary feeding schemes for menaced birds of prey.     

Dietary shifts in two vultures after the demise of supplementary feeding stations: consequences of the EU sanitary legislation

Among vertebrates, specialization in scavenging has appeared only in “true” Gyps vultures, which usually base their diet almost exclusively on carcasses of medium and large-sized mammals, whereas all other scavengers rely on broader ranges of prey. The availability of food for scavengers in Western Europe has not been limited during recent decades permitting the existence and growth of huge vulture populations. From 2000 onwards, however, EU sanitary legislation has progressively limited the abandonment of dead animals in the field resulting in a sudden reduction of food availability with unknown ecological and conservation consequences. Here, we examine the dietary response of a tandem of carrion eaters, the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) and the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), showing different degrees of dietary specialization. Our results showed that after the reduction in numbers of supplementary feeding stations (vulture restaurants) the niche breadth of the griffon vulture has broadened and now includes significant amounts of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and garbage. The diet of the Egyptian vulture, on the contrary, did not vary substantially. The diet overlap showed patterns probably conditioned by interspecific competition and the progressive exploitation of unpredictable carcasses. On a short-term scale, consequences for smaller scavengers could be negative due to the monopolization of resources by the dominant and much more abundant griffon vulture, however in the long-term all guild species would benefit from the exploitation of unpredictable carcasses, which could enhance the possibilities of coexistence.     

Bone crushing carnivores and their significance to osteodystrophy in griffon vulture chicks

The natural removal of 89 ungulate carcasses by predators and scavengers was monitored in various wildlife reserves and ranching areas of South Africa. Carnivores responsible for the bone remains were determined. Spotted hyaenas and, to a lesser extent, Brown hyaenas, were the only carnivores that regularly chewed bones. When hyaenas were absent, months of weathering were required before the smaller bones became disarticulated and able to be removed by vultures. The bone-collecting behaviour and related aspects of breeding of two species of griffon vulture were studied at five different nesting colonies in southern Africa—one Cape vulture colony and one White-backed vulture colony in or near wildlife reserves, as well as two Cape vulture colonies and one White-backed vulture colony in ranching land. A total of 2825 bones was found in or below the vulture nests. These bones were categorized and measured. Hyaena-produced bone fragments were found only in the colonies in the wild areas—none of the 387 chicks examined here had osteodystrophy (metabolic bone disease). By contrast, in the ranching areas, vultures collected larger and less fragmented bones. Many Cape vulture chicks had osteodystrophy (130 of 1917 examined), as did two White-backed vulture chicks (of 196 examined). In 1977, artificial feeding stations, 'restaurants' where carcass skeletons were crushed, were established for Cape vultures. Since then, the incidence of osteodystrophy has declined from 17% to 2–5% in 1983. It is clear that bone fragments are an essential dietary requirement, providing calcium for correct skeletal growth of griffon vulture chicks.     

Anticipating Knowledge to Inform Species Management: Predicting Spatially Explicit Habitat Suitability of a Colonial Vulture Spreading Its Range

Background

The knowledge of both potential distribution and habitat suitability is fundamental in spreading species to inform in advance management and conservation planning. After a severe decline in the past decades, the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) is now spreading its breeding range towards the northwest in Spain and Europe. Because of its key ecological function, anticipated spatial knowledge is required to inform appropriately both vulture and ecosystem management.

Methodology/Findings

Here we used maximum entropy (Maxent) models to determine the habitat suitability of potential and current breeding distribution of the griffon vulture using presence-only data (N = 124 colonies) in north-western Spain. The most relevant ecological factors shaping this habitat suitability were also identified. The resulting model had a high predictive performance and was able to predict species'' historical distribution. 7.5% (∼1,850 km²) of the study area resulted to be suitable breeding habitat, most of which (∼70%) is already occupied by the species. Cliff availability and livestock density, especially of sheep and goats, around 10 km of the colonies were the fundamental factors determining breeding habitat suitability for this species.

Conclusions/Significance

Griffon vultures could still spread 50–60 km towards the west, increasing their breeding range in 1,782 km². According to our results, 7.22% of the area suitable for griffon vulture will be affected by wind farms, so our results could help to better plan wind farm locations. The approach here developed could be useful to inform management of reintroductions and recovery programmes currently being implemented for both the griffon vulture and other threatened vulture species.     

Using Wind Tunnels to Predict Bird Mortality in Wind Farms: The Case of Griffon Vultures

Background

Wind farms have shown a spectacular growth during the last 15 years. Avian mortality through collision with moving rotor blades is well-known as one of the main adverse impacts of wind farms. In Spain, the griffon vulture incurs the highest mortality rates in wind farms.

Methodology/Principal Findings

As far as we know, this study is the first attempt to predict flight trajectories of birds in order to foresee potentially dangerous areas for wind farm development. We analyse topography and wind flows in relation to flight paths of griffon vultures, using a scaled model of the wind farm area in an aerodynamic wind tunnel, and test the difference between the observed flight paths of griffon vultures and the predominant wind flows. Different wind currents for each wind direction in the aerodynamic model were observed. Simulations of wind flows in a wind tunnel were compared with observed flight paths of griffon vultures. No statistical differences were detected between the observed flight trajectories of griffon vultures and the wind passages observed in our wind tunnel model. A significant correlation was found between dead vultures predicted proportion of vultures crossing those cells according to the aerodynamic model.

Conclusions

Griffon vulture flight routes matched the predominant wind flows in the area (i.e. they followed the routes where less flight effort was needed). We suggest using these kinds of simulations to predict flight paths over complex terrains can inform the location of wind turbines and thereby reduce soaring bird mortality.     

Communal farmers of Namibia appreciate vultures and the ecosystem services they provide

Ecosystem services are cited as one of the many reasons for conserving declining vulture populations in Africa. We aimed to explore how communal farmers in Namibia perceive vultures and the ecosystem services they provide, with special focus on cultural and regulating ecosystem services. We surveyed 361 households across Namibia’s communal farmlands and found that over two-thirds of households liked vultures and found them useful, stating that they were harmless and useful for locating dead livestock. The minority of households who disliked vultures believed that they were killing their livestock. Poisoning was the main cause of vulture mortalities reported by farmers. While poisoning appears to be a concern for vultures in the communal farmlands, it appears that cultural use of vulture body parts is a minimal threat. We found that few farmers knew of cultural beliefs about vultures or uses for body parts; most farmers believed these beliefs and practices to be outdated. It is further promising that communal farmers have an overall positive perception of vultures. This highlights the potential for communal conservancies to bring attention to vulture conservation in their constituencies.     

Foraging movements of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus): implications for supplementary feeding management

The outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy provoked restrictive European sanitary legislation that forced farmers to remove livestock carcasses from the wild. This had serious repercussions for the scavenger raptor guild. Against this background, we developed a study to analyse the foraging movements of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in northern Spain. We ringed 241 griffon vultures with alphanumeric plastic rings in Biscay between 2000 and 2011 and set experimental feeding stations in 24 sites over an area of 10,614 km²; recording re-sightings of the ringed vultures between 2005 and 2012. Using these re-sighting records, we tested whether birds randomly moved long distances whilst searching for food, or if vulture re-sightings were restricted to a few feeding sites within a limited area. We summarised 329 field-work days, with an average of 2.06 ringed vultures re-sighted per day, accounting for 1,017 re-sightings. Adult vultures were detected in three separate foraging nuclei within the study area. Movements out of the main foraging nuclei were statistically less frequent than would be expected if adult vultures accessed all resources at a similar rate. Once established at breeding areas, subadult vultures behaved in the same way as adults. Our results suggest that vultures’ home ranges are largely restricted to zones close to breeding areas. This has important consequences from a conservation point of view, suggesting that management decisions should take into consideration spatial scale effects.     

Bovine tuberculosis in Doñana Biosphere Reserve: the role of wild ungulates as disease reservoirs in the last Iberian lynx strongholds

Doñana National Park (DNP) in southern Spain is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve where commercial hunting and wildlife artificial feeding do not take place and traditional cattle husbandry still exists. Herein, we hypothesized that Mycobacterium bovis infection prevalence in wild ungulates will depend on host ecology and that variation in prevalence will reflect variation in the interaction between hosts and environmental risk factors. Cattle bTB reactor rates increased in DNP despite compulsory testing and culling of infected animals. In this study, 124 European wild boar, 95 red deer, and 97 fallow deer were sampled from April 2006 to April 2007 and analyzed for M. bovis infection. Modelling and GIS were used to identify risk factors and intra and inter-species relationships. Infection with M. bovis was confirmed in 65 (52.4%) wild boar, 26 (27.4%) red deer and 18 (18.5%) fallow deer. In the absence of cattle, wild boar M. bovis prevalence reached 92.3% in the northern third of DNP. Wild boar showed more than twice prevalence than that in deer (p<0.001). Modelling revealed that M. bovis prevalence decreased from North to South in wild boar (p<0.001) and red deer (p<0.01), whereas no spatial pattern was evidenced for fallow deer. Infection risk in wild boar was dependent on wild boar M. bovis prevalence in the buffer area containing interacting individuals (p<0.01). The prevalence recorded in this study is among the highest reported in wildlife. Remarkably, this high prevalence occurs in the absence of wildlife artificial feeding, suggesting that a feeding ban alone would have a limited effect on wildlife M. bovis prevalence. In DNP, M. bovis transmission may occur predominantly at the intra-species level due to ecological, behavioural and epidemiological factors. The results of this study allow inferring conclusions on epidemiological bTB risk factors in Mediterranean habitats that are not managed for hunting purposes. Our results support the need to consider wildlife species for the control of bTB in cattle and strongly suggest that bTB may affect animal welfare and conservation.     

Implications of bacterial,viral and mycotic microorganisms in vultures for wildlife conservation,ecosystem services and public health

The effects that microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and fungi) have on their hosts remain unexplored for most vulture species. This is especially relevant for vultures, as their diet consists of carcasses in various stages of decomposition, which are breeding grounds for potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Here we review current knowledge of bacterial, viral and mycotic microorganisms present in wild vultures. We consider their potential to cause disease in vultures and whether this poses any population-level threats. Furthermore, we address the question of whether vultures may act as disease spreaders or mitigators. We found 76 articles concerning bacterial, viral and mycotic microorganisms present in 13 vulture species, 57 evaluating bacteria, 13 evaluating viruses and six evaluating mycotic microorganisms. These studies come from all continents where vultures are present, but mainly from Europe and North America, and the most studied species was the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus. We found that vultures are colonized by zoonotic pathogens, and even host-specific human pathogens. Some recorded bacteria showed multi-antibiotic resistance, especially those that can be associated with anthropogenic food subsides such as supplementary feeding stations. We found evidence that vulture health can be affected by some microorganisms, producing a wide array of clinical alterations that have the potential to influence mortality risk and fitness. We did not find clear scientific evidence that vultures play an epidemiological role spreading microorganisms to humans and other species. However, there is evidence that vultures could prevent the spread of infectious diseases through their removal of decomposing organic material. The evaluation of vulture exposure to microorganisms is of fundamental importance to design better conservation policies for this threatened group, which may serve a key role as ecosystem cleaners.     

Vulture distribution and people perception of vultures in Pokhara Valley,Nepal

Due to an abundance and diversity of vultures, Nepal is one of the most important countries for vulture conservation. Within Nepal, the Pokhara Valley is especially significant. We examine the distribution of vultures within the Pokhara Valley by conducting counts at 11 potential feeding or roosting sites using point count method. We further surveyed people of the valley regarding their perception of vulture ecology and conservation, knowledge of diclofenac use within the valley, and burial of livestock carcasses. We detected eight species of vultures, four of which are currently threatened with extinction. White‐rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian vulture Nephron percnopterus, and Himalayan vulture G. himalayensis were the most abundant. Almost all respondents (98%) had sighted the vultures in the wild. Formally educated respondents reported seeing vultures’ slightly more than nonformally educated respondents. Fifty‐eight percent respondents suspected habitat loss was the major threat for the vulture population decline in Pokhara Valley, and 97% respondents were not aware of any diclofenac use. The knowledge of vultures in people with different age groups suggests a more awareness programs are needed for local people, especially those who carry out animal husbandry and provide livestock to the vulture restaurant.     

Differential long-term impacts of a management control program of axis deer and wild boar in a protected area of north-eastern Argentina

Exotic ungulates are among the top global invasive mammals and a threat to biodiversity. Axis deer (Axis axis) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) are of increasing concern in multiple regions. A management program reduced wild boar abundance and soil damage below target levels through controlled still shooting from watchtowers and dog-hunting performed by recreational hunters at El Palmar National Park, Argentina. Here we assess program impacts on axis deer over a 10-year period in which 2380 deer were dispatched, and document two largely unexpected outcomes: increasing axis deer abundance toward a plateau, and a strong inverse correlation between deer and wild boar numbers. Unlike the initial steep decline and subsequent stabilization of wild boar, deer abundance indexed by standardized catch-per-unit-effort increased at 37.6% per year over 0–5 years post-intervention (YPI) and stabilized from 7 YPI on when still-shooting effort averaged 948 hunting party-hours per quarter. Deer catch was non-linearly related to still-shooting effort. Timing of deer and boar catches did not differ significantly regardless of sex, season and YPI. Catch-per-unit-effort indices and nightly spotlight deer counts showed similarly increasing trends. The fraction of older adult deer declined over 0–4 YPI and remained stable thereafter. Sex ratios were consistently skewed toward males only among older adults. Failure to reduce deer abundance may be explained by several major processes: protracted exponential growth of the deer population after park invasion; deer regional expansion with increasing immigration; insufficient sex- and stage-biased hunting mortality, and competitor (and perhaps predator) release from wild boar.     

Breeding site selection by bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) in the Caucasus

Occupied and unoccupied sites of bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus and Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus were located in the Caucasus (mainly Georgia). Habitat variables related to nest-site characteristics, climate, terrain, human disturbance and food availability were used to construct predictive models of vulture breeding site selection by using a geographic information system (GIS), logistic regression and Bayesian statistical inference. The probability of bearded vulture occupancy of a cliff ledge that was safe from climatic adversity, human disturbance and predation was positively correlated with the following variables measured within a 20-km radius of the ledge: mean elevation, mean slope, the percentage of open areas, mean distance to roads, number of globally threatened wild goats Capra cylindricornis, C. caucasica and C. aegargus , and annual biomass of dead livestock. The probability of such a cliff ledge being occupied by Eurasian griffon was negatively correlated with annual rainfall at the ledge and positively correlated with the percentage of open areas and annual biomass of dead livestock within 20 km of the ledge. Provided that GIS coverage of the habitat variables is available, these models can be of help in various areas of the Caucasus and elsewhere to predict possible nest occurrence areas, and highlight sites where vultures may occur in the future if the population grows because of conservation or other activities.     

African Vultures Don’t Follow Migratory Herds: Scavenger Habitat Use Is Not Mediated by Prey Abundance

The ongoing global decline in vulture populations raises major conservation concerns, but little is known about the factors that mediate scavenger habitat use, in particular the importance of abundance of live prey versus prey mortality. We test this using data from the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in East Africa. The two hypotheses that prey abundance or prey mortality are the main drivers of vulture habitat use provide alternative predictions. If vultures select areas based only on prey abundance, we expect tracked vultures to remain close to herds of migratory wildebeest regardless of season. However, if vultures select areas where mortality rates are greatest then we expect vultures to select the driest regions, where animals are more likely to die of starvation, and to be attracted to migratory wildebeest only during the dry season when wildebeest mortality is greatest. We used data from GSM-GPS transmitters to assess the relationship between three vulture species and migratory wildebeest in the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem. Results indicate that vultures preferentially cluster around migratory herds only during the dry season, when herds experience their highest mortality. Additionally during the wet season, Ruppell’s and Lappet-faced vultures select relatively dry areas, based on Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, whereas White-backed vultures preferred wetter areas during the wet season. Differences in habitat use among species may mediate coexistence in this scavenger guild. In general, our results suggest that prey abundance is not the primary driver of avian scavenger habitat use. The apparent reliance of vultures on non-migratory ungulates during the wet season has important conservation implications for vultures in light of on-going declines in non-migratory ungulate species and use of poisons in unprotected areas.     

The basic causes of death in hoofed mammals in the ussuri reserve and in the adjacent territory

The basic causes of death in hoofed mammals in the Urruri reserve and in the adjacent territory during the period from 1974 to 2011 are hunting and poaching, tiger predation, and exhaustion. The sika deer has accounted for the largest number of the established deaths since the 1990s, because this species has become dominant in the fauna of hoofed animals in the reserve as a result of acclimatization. Before the 1980s, the main prey for tigers were the red deer (52%) and wild boar (44%): the share of the sika deer in the prey was 4%. During the most recent 10 years, the share of the sika deer, wild boar, and red deer in the tiger-prey trophic link at separate stations of the reserve has been 68%, 20.6%, and 6.9%, respectively.     

Toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Gyps vultures: a new threat from ketoprofen

Three Gyps vulture species are on the brink of extinction in South Asia owing to the veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac. Carcasses of domesticated ungulates are the main food source for Asia''s vultures and birds die from kidney failure after consuming diclofenac-contaminated tissues. Here, we report on the safety testing of the NSAID ketoprofen, which was not reported to cause mortality in clinical treatment of scavenging birds and is rapidly eliminated from livestock tissues. Safety testing was undertaken using captive non-releasable Cape griffon vultures (Gyps coprotheres) and wild-caught African white-backed vultures (G. africanus), both previously identified as susceptible to diclofenac and suitable surrogates. Ketoprofen doses ranged from 0.5 to 5 mg kg⁻¹ vulture body weight, based upon recommended veterinary guidelines and maximum levels of exposure for wild vultures (estimated as 1.54 mg kg⁻¹). Doses were administered by oral gavage or through feeding tissues from cattle dosed with ketoprofen at 6 mg kg⁻¹ cattle body weight, before slaughter. Mortalities occurred at dose levels of 1.5 and 5 mg kg⁻¹ vulture body weight (within the range recommended for clinical treatment) with the same clinical signs as observed for diclofenac. Surveys of livestock carcasses in India indicate that toxic levels of residual ketoprofen are already present in vulture food supplies. Consequently, we strongly recommend that ketoprofen is not used for veterinary treatment of livestock in Asia and in other regions of the world where vultures access livestock carcasses. The only alternative to diclofenac that should be promoted as safe for vultures is the NSAID meloxicam.     

Cortisol response of wild ungulates to trauma situations: hunting is not necessarily the worst stressor

Animal welfare concerns are becoming a central issue in wildlife management and conservation. Thus, we investigated stress response of wild ungulates to potentially traumatic situations (shooting injuries, vehicle collisions, entanglement, injuries or diseases) and hunting methods (stalking, battues and hunts with dogs) by means of serum cortisol concentrations from blood collected from killed animals. Cortisol levels in roe deer ranged below and in wild boar above levels for moose, red deer and fallow deer (hence, pooled as a group “deer”). Apart from species, cortisol concentration in trauma situations was mainly explained by trauma type and presence of disturbance after the trauma event. Effect of trauma type differed significantly for “deer”, with animals caught in fences and suffering vehicle collisions experiencing higher cortisol levels than animals injured by shooting. Differences between hunting methods were observed in the cervids (“deer” and roe deer), with stalking leading to lower cortisol levels than hunts with dogs (both groups) and battues (roe deer). Events both before and after the shot, such as duration of pursuit prior to shooting, location of injury, trauma length and presence of disturbance after the shot were relevant for cortisol levels in hunted cervids. Our results indicate that search teams tracking and euthanising wounded animals should behave in a calm way to minimise disturbance. Still, it is important to acknowledge that many situations described in the literature, i.e. reindeer handling, roe deer captures and red deer yarding, seem even more stressful, beside vehicle collisions, than most hunting methods.     

Wolf (Canis lupus) feeding habits during the first eight years of its occurrence in Germany

Due to the fact that the feeding habits of large carnivores are the main contentious point when they start resettling regions they were absent from for several decades, the diet composition of the wolves in Germany was analysed from the beginning of this process. Wolves in Germany primarily feed on wild ungulates, which make up more than 96% of their diet. The dominating prey species is the roe deer (55.3%), followed by red deer (20.8%) and wild boar (17.7%). The second important food category are the leporids (2.9% of Biomass), whereas livestock makes up only 0.6% of all biomass consumed. Wolves clearly prefer hunting on juvenile to adult red deer; roe deer are not selected after their age. We found seasonal differences in the diet composition with a higher amount of wild boar in spring and winter, when a high amount of juveniles and weakened animals, respectively, are available. In the first years of the study the percentage of red deer was much higher, and the percentage of roe deer therefore was lower than the following years. The amount of wild boar in the wolf diet fluctuated most in the first three years. Diet composition remained constant during the last five years. Wolves needed less than two generations for adapting to the new conditions in the cultivated landscape of eastern Germany.