水源性诺如病毒

诺如病毒是导致人类病毒性急性腹泻的主要病原,常常造成严重的公共卫生与食品安全事件,而水体是诺如病毒传播的重要载体。对水源性诺如病毒的环境抗性、浓缩和检测方法、流行病学以及目前对于水体中诺如病毒检测存在的突出问题和未来的发展方向进行了综述和展望。     

水体中诺瓦克病毒RT-PCR检测研究

诺瓦克病毒是公认的食源性或水源性非细菌性胃肠炎的主要致病因子之一。建立诺瓦克病毒的RT-PCR检测方法,验证其特异性及灵敏度,并在实验室人工污染水样,进行模拟水样的检测,验证RT-PCR检测方法的实用性。所用引物为RNA多聚酶区的JV12/JV13,多次反复实验,均可产生327bp预期大小的特异条带,并通过杂交进一步证实了其特异性和正确性;在临床粪样中,可达到的最高检测限为50pg/mL。在共42份模拟样品的检测中,经过播毒、富集和浓缩,38份均可检出诺瓦克病毒。其中4份池塘水未检出。在模拟水样中的检测灵敏度为200pg/mL。实验中所建立的试验条件和体系可用于实际水样中诺瓦克病毒的筛选,对水质控制起到了很好的监控作用。     

水体中诺瓦克病毒RT-PCR检测研究

诺瓦克病毒是公认的食源性或水源性非细菌性胃肠炎的主要致病因子之一。建立诺瓦克病毒的RT-PCR检测方法,验证其特异性及灵敏度,并在实验室人工污染水样,进行模拟水样的检测,验证RT-PCR检测方法的实用性。所用引物为RNA多聚酶区的JV12/JV13,多次反复实验,均可产生327bp预期大小的特异条带,并通过杂交进一步证实了其特异性和正确性;在临床粪样中,可达到的最高检测限为50pg/mL。在共42份模拟样品的检测中,经过播毒、富集和浓缩,38份均可检出诺瓦克病毒。其中4份池塘水未检出。在模拟水样中的检测灵敏度为200pg/mL。实验中所建立的试验条件和体系可用于实际水样中诺瓦克病毒的筛选,对水质控制起到了很好的监控作用。     

诺如病毒检测方法研究进展

诺如病毒是引起人类非细菌性胃肠炎的主要病原之一,具有很高的传染性和变异性,可导致严重的公共卫生问题,尤其在抵抗力弱的人群中有很高的发病率,因此开发快速、准确的检测技术对预防和控制诺如病毒的传播是非常重要的。本文综述了近年来RT-PCR、环介导等温扩增、实时荧光定量PCR、巢式PCR、ELISA、免疫层析、基因芯片等技术在诺如病毒检测中的应用及发展趋势。     

贝类中人源诺如病毒污染净化技术研究进展

人源诺如病毒是全球引起人急性胃肠炎的食源性病原体之一。牡蛎、贻贝等贝类消化腺组织中含有诺如病毒受体类似物,可从污染水体中富集高浓度病毒,因此,生食或食用加工不当的受污染贝类极易造成诺如病毒感染。污染贝类的净化处理技术已成为诺如病毒防控领域中的研究热点,例如消杀试剂、臭氧处理工艺、新型非热消杀技术以及最近报道的具有抗病毒作用的益生菌等。诺如病毒活性检测对确定贝类中的病毒污染水平和评价消杀技术效果有重要作用,只有完整和具有感染力的病毒才会对人体健康造成威胁。因此,本文在前期工作基础上,进一步对诺如病毒活性鉴定方法、贝类产品消杀技术以及贝类养殖净化工艺等研究进展进行综述,以期为完善食源性病毒防控技术提供参考。     

Nationwide groundwater surveillance of noroviruses in South Korea, 2008

To inspect the norovirus contamination of groundwater in South Korea, a nationwide study was performed in the summer (June to August) and winter (October to December) of 2008. Three-hundred sites designated by the government ministry were inspected. Water samples were collected for analysis of water quality, microorganism content, and viral content. Water quality was assessed by temperature, pH, turbidity, residual chlorine, and nitrite nitrogen content. Microorganism contents were analyzed bacteria, total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and bacteriophage. Virus analyses included panenterovirus and norovirus. Two primer sets were used for the detection of norovirus genotypes GI and GII, respectively. Of 300 samples, 65 (21.7%) were norovirus positive in the summer and in 52 (17.3%) were norovirus positive in the winter. The genogroup GI noroviruses that were identified were GI-1, GI-2, GI-3, GI-4, GI-5, GI-6, and GI-8 genotypes; those in the GII genogroup were GII-4 and GII-Yuri genotypes. The analytic data showed correlative relationships between the norovirus detection rate and the following parameters: water temperature and turbidity in physical-chemical parameters and somatic phage in microbial parameters. It is necessary to periodically monitor waterborne viruses that frequently cause epidemic food poisoning in South Korea for better public health and sanitary conditions.     

基于Qbeta噬菌体装甲RNA技术的诺如病毒RNA标准参考样品的研制

针对目前检测领域缺乏诺如病毒(Norovirus, NoV)核酸标准样品这一瓶颈,基于Qbeta噬菌体装甲RNA技术构建内含GII型NoV检测靶标RNA的病毒样颗粒(virus like particles, VLPs)标准参考样品。     

Murine norovirus, a recently discovered and highly prevalent viral agent of mice

Murine norovirus (MNV), a recently discovered viral agent of laboratory mice, is closely related to human norovirus, a contagious pathogen known to cause gastroenteritis. The prototype strain of MNV (MNV-1) was first isolated and characterized in 2003 as a sporadic, lethal pathogen in certain strains of immunocompromised knockout mice. Serological surveillance data from mouse colonies throughout the US and Canada have since shown that MNV is highly prevalent. Because MNV is unique among norovirus strains in its ability to replicate in cell culture, it serves as the most accessible model to elucidate the mechanisms of infection and replication of human norovirus. The author discusses the genetic diversity of MNV, its prevalence, pathology and potential research implications, as well as techniques for detection and eradication of this virus.     

A rapidly new-typed detection of norovirus based on F<Subscript>0</Subscript>F<Subscript>1</Subscript>-ATPase molecular motor biosensor

In order to adapt port rapid detection of food borne norovirus, presently we developed a new typed detection method based on F₀F₁-ATPase molecular motor biosensor. A specific probe was encompassed the conservative region of norovirus and F₀F₁-ATPase within chromatophore was constructed as a molecular motor biosensor through the “ε-subunit antibody-streptomycin-biotin-probe” system. Norovirus was captured based on probe-RNA specific binding. Our results demonstrated that the Limit of Quantification (LOQ) is 0.005 ng/mL for NV RNA and also demonstrated that this method possesses specificity and none cross-reaction for food borne virus. What’s more, the experiment used this method could be accomplished in 1 h. We detected 10 samples by using this method and the results were consistent with RT-PCR results. Overall, based on F₀F₁-ATPase molecular motors biosensor system we firstly established a new typed detection method for norovirus detection and demonstrated that this method is sensitive and specific and can be used in the rapid detection for food borne virus.     

Detection of norovirus capsid protein in authentic standards and in stool extracts by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization and nanospray mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometry (MS) represents a rapid technique for the identification of microbial monocultures, and its adaptation to the detection of pathogens in real-world samples is a public health and homeland security priority. Norovirus, a leading cause of gastroenteritis in the world, is difficult to monitor because it cannot be cultured outside the human body. The detection of norovirus capsid protein was explored using three common MS-based methods: scanning of intact proteins, peptide mass fingerprinting, and peptide sequencing. Detection of intact target protein was limited by poor selectivity and sensitivity. Detection of up to 16 target peptides by peptide mass fingerprinting allowed for the reproducible and confident (P < 0.05) detection of the 56-kDa norovirus capsid protein in the range of 0.1 x 10(-12) to 50 x 10(-12) mol in authentic standards of recombinant norovirus virus-like particles (VLPs). To explore assay performance in complex matrixes, a non-gel-based, rapid method (2 to 3 h) for virus extraction from human stool was evaluated (72% +/- 12% recovery), and additional analyses were performed on norovirus-free stool extracts fortified with VLPs. Whereas peptide mass fingerprinting was rendered impractical by sample interferences, peptide sequencing using nanospray tandem MS facilitated unambiguous identification of > or =250 fmol of capsid protein in stool extracts. This is the first report on MS-based detection of norovirus, accomplished by using structurally identical, noninfective VLPs at clinically relevant concentrations. It represents an important milestone in the development of assays for surveillance of this category B bioterrorism agent.     

Detection of Norovirus Capsid Protein in Authentic Standards and in Stool Extracts by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization and Nanospray Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectrometry (MS) represents a rapid technique for the identification of microbial monocultures, and its adaptation to the detection of pathogens in real-world samples is a public health and homeland security priority. Norovirus, a leading cause of gastroenteritis in the world, is difficult to monitor because it cannot be cultured outside the human body. The detection of norovirus capsid protein was explored using three common MS-based methods: scanning of intact proteins, peptide mass fingerprinting, and peptide sequencing. Detection of intact target protein was limited by poor selectivity and sensitivity. Detection of up to 16 target peptides by peptide mass fingerprinting allowed for the reproducible and confident (P < 0.05) detection of the 56-kDa norovirus capsid protein in the range of 0.1 × 10⁻¹² to 50 × 10⁻¹² mol in authentic standards of recombinant norovirus virus-like particles (VLPs). To explore assay performance in complex matrixes, a non-gel-based, rapid method (2 to 3 h) for virus extraction from human stool was evaluated (72% ± 12% recovery), and additional analyses were performed on norovirus-free stool extracts fortified with VLPs. Whereas peptide mass fingerprinting was rendered impractical by sample interferences, peptide sequencing using nanospray tandem MS facilitated unambiguous identification of ≥250 fmol of capsid protein in stool extracts. This is the first report on MS-based detection of norovirus, accomplished by using structurally identical, noninfective VLPs at clinically relevant concentrations. It represents an important milestone in the development of assays for surveillance of this category B bioterrorism agent.     

Evaluation of a New Environmental Sampling Protocol for Detection of Human Norovirus on Inanimate Surfaces

Inanimate surfaces are regarded as key vehicles for the spread of human norovirus during outbreaks. ISO method 15216 involves the use of cotton swabs for environmental sampling from food surfaces and fomites for the detection of norovirus genogroup I (GI) and GII. We evaluated the effects of the virus drying time (1, 8, 24, or 48 h), swab material (cotton, polyester, rayon, macrofoam, or an antistatic wipe), surface (stainless steel or a toilet seat), and area of the swabbed surface (25.8 cm² to 645.0 cm²) on the recovery of human norovirus. Macrofoam swabs produced the highest rate of recovery of norovirus from surfaces as large as 645 cm². The rates of recovery ranged from 2.2 to 36.0% for virus seeded on stainless-steel coupons (645.0 cm²) to 1.2 to 33.6% for toilet seat surfaces (700 cm²), with detection limits of 3.5 log₁₀ and 4.0 log₁₀ RNA copies. We used macrofoam swabs to collect environmental samples from several case cabins and common areas of a cruise ship where passengers had reported viral gastroenteritis symptoms. Seventeen (18.5%) of 92 samples tested positive for norovirus GII, and 4 samples could be sequenced and had identical GII.1 sequences. The viral loads of the swab samples from the cabins of the sick passengers ranged from 80 to 31,217 RNA copies, compared with 16 to 113 RNA copies for swab samples from public spaces. In conclusion, our swab protocol for norovirus may be a useful tool for outbreak investigations when no clinical samples are available to confirm the etiology.     

Immune Mechanisms Responsible for Vaccination against and Clearance of Mucosal and Lymphatic Norovirus Infection

Two cardinal manifestations of viral immunity are efficient clearance of acute infection and the capacity to vaccinate against secondary viral exposure. For noroviruses, the contributions of T cells to viral clearance and vaccination have not been elucidated. We report here that both CD4 and CD8 T cells are required for efficient clearance of primary murine norovirus (MNV) infection from the intestine and intestinal lymph nodes. Further, long-lasting protective immunity was generated by oral live virus vaccination. Systemic vaccination with the MNV capsid protein also effectively protected against mucosal challenge, while vaccination with the capsid protein of the distantly related human Lordsdale virus provided partial protection. Fully effective vaccination required a broad immune response including CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and B cells, but the importance of specific immune cell types varied between the intestine and intestinal lymph nodes. Perforin, but not interferon gamma, was required for clearance of MNV infection by adoptively transferred T lymphocytes from vaccinated hosts. These studies prove the feasibility of both mucosal and systemic vaccination against mucosal norovirus infection, demonstrate tissue specificity of norovirus immune cells, and indicate that efficient vaccination strategies should induce potent CD4 and CD8 T cell responses.     

Assessment of the stability of human viruses and coliphage in groundwater by PCR and infectivity methods

Aim: To investigate the potential health hazard from infectious viruses where coliphages, or viruses by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), have been detected in groundwater. Two aspects were investigated: the relationship between infectivity and detection by PCR and the stability of coliphage compared to human viruses. Methods and Results: Virus decay (1 year) and detection (2 years) studies were undertaken on groundwater at 12°C. The order of virus stability from most to least stable in groundwater, based on first‐order inactivation, was: coliphage ΦX174 (0·5 d^?1) > adenovirus 2 > coliphage PRD1 > poliovirus 3 > coxsackie virus B1 (0·13 d^?1). The order for PCR results was: norovirus genotype II > adenovirus > norovirus genotype I > enterovirus. Conclusions: Enterovirus and adenovirus detection by PCR and the duration of infectivity in groundwater followed similar trends over the time period studied. Adenovirus might be a better method for assessing groundwater contamination than using enterovirus; norovirus detection would provide information on a significant human health hazard. Bacteriophage is a good alternative indicator. Significance and Impact of the Study: PCR is a useful tool for identifying the health hazard from faecal contamination in groundwater where conditions are conducive to the survival of viruses and their nucleic acid.     

Early Detection of Epidemic GII-4 Norovirus Strains in UK and Malawi: Role of Surveillance of Sporadic Acute Gastroenteritis in Anticipating Global Epidemics

Noroviruses are endemic in the human population, and are recognised as a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Although they are a highly diverse group of viruses, genogroup-II genotype-4 (GII-4) noroviruses are the most frequently identified strains worldwide. The predominance of GII-4 norovirus strains is driven by the periodic emergence of antigenic variants capable of evading herd protection. The global molecular epidemiology of emerging GII-4 strains is largely based on data from outbreak surveillance programmes, but the epidemiology of GII-4 strains among sporadic or community cases is far less well studied. To understand the distribution of GII-4 norovirus strains associated with gastroenteritis in the wider population, we characterised the GII-4 norovirus strains detected during studies of sporadic cases of infectious gastroenteritis collected in the UK and Malawi between 1993 and 2009. Our data shows that GII-4 norovirus strains that have emerged as strains of global epidemic importance have circulated in the community up to 18 years before their recognition as pandemic strains associated with increases in outbreaks. These data may suggest that more comprehensive surveillance programmes that incorporate strains associated with sporadic cases may provide a way for early detection of emerging strains with pandemic potential. This may be of particular relevance as vaccines become available.     

Influence of Novel Norovirus GII.4 Variants on Gastroenteritis Outbreak Dynamics in Alberta and the Northern Territories,Canada between 2000 and 2008

Background

Norovirus GII.4 is the predominant genotype circulating worldwide over the last decade causing 80% of all norovirus outbreaks with new GII.4 variants reported in parallel with periodic epidemic waves of norovirus outbreaks. The circulating new GII.4 variants and the epidemiology of norovirus outbreaks in Alberta, Canada have not been described. Our hypothesis is that the periodic epidemic norovirus outbreak activity in Alberta was driven by new GII.4 variants evolving by genetic drift.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The Alberta Provincial Public Health Laboratory performed norovirus testing using RT-PCR for suspected norovirus outbreaks in the province and the northern Territories between 2000 and 2008. At least one norovirus strain from 707 out of 1,057 (66.9%) confirmed norovirus outbreaks were successfully sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using BioNumerics and 617 (91.1%) outbreaks were characterized as caused by GII.4 with 598 assigned as novel variants including: GII.4-1996, GII.4-2002, GII.4-2004, GII.4-2006a, GII.4-2006b, GII.4-2008a and GII.4-2008b. Defining July to June of the following year as the yearly observation period, there was clear biannual pattern of low and high outbreak activity in Alberta. Within this biannual pattern, high outbreak activity followed the emergence of novel GII.4 variants. The two variants that emerged in 2006 had wider geographic distribution and resulted in higher outbreak activity compared to other variants. The outbreak settings were analyzed. Community-based group residence was the most common for both GII.4 variants and non-GII.4 variants. GII.4 variants were more commonly associated with outbreaks in acute care hospitals while outbreaks associated non-GII.4 variants were more commonly seen in school and community social events settings (p<0.01).

Conclusions/Significance

The emergence of new norovirus GII.4 variants resulted in an increased norovirus outbreak activity in the following season in a unique biannual pattern in Alberta over an eight year period. The association between antigenic drift of GII.4 strains and epidemic norovirus outbreak activity could be due to changes in host immunity, viral receptor binding efficiency or virulence factors in the new variants. Early detection of novel GII.4 variants provides vital information that could be used to forecast the norovirus outbreak burden, enhance public health preparedness and allocate appropriate resources for outbreak management.