Pseudomonas tolaasii and tolaasin: comparison of symptom induction on a wide range of Agaricus bisporus strains

Abstract A wide range of Agaricus bisporus , including commercial, wild and hybrid strains, were tested for resistance to brown blotch disease caused by Pseudomonas tolaasii . Effects of toxin and living bacteria were compared. Wild and hybrid A. bisporus ranged in the same order from very poorly to highly susceptible whatever the inoculum type used, tolaasin or bacteria. Symptom aspects induced by both inocula were visually identical, but some differences occurred in response intensity. The data suggest that toxin is probably not the only factor involved in symptom development.     

Biological control of mushroom brown blotch disease using antagonistic bacteria

Button mushroom brown blotch disease is one of the most important and devastating diseases in Iran which is caused by Pseudomonas tolaasii. To screen antagonistic bacteria against this pathogen, major mushroom cultivation centres in Iran were surveyed and samples were taken from compost, soil cover and button caps with or without visible symptoms. In total, 120 bacteria were isolated on the basis of their morphology and pathology on excised tissue blocks of the fresh Agaricus bisporus. Among all tested bacteria, thirty-six isolates produced variable inhibition zones and reduced the symptom incidence on tissue blocks of A. bisporus. The most effective antagonistic bacteria caused almost 100% inhibition of pathogenic bacterium. To confirm the identification of antagonistic bacteria, RNA polymerase beta-subunit gene (rpoB) of five antagonistic strains (A1, A2, A3, A4 and A6) were amplified using primer sets of long amplicon primers (LAPS) and LAP27. The polymerase chain reaction products of the strains A1, A3 and A6 were sequenced. Based on phenotypic, biochemical and molecular characteristics, the bacterial antagonists were identified as P. putida (A1), P. reactants (A2 and A6), P. fluorescens (A3 and A4) and Bacillus subtilis (A5), respectively. In all four criteria including weight of the diseased and healthy caps, per cent disease severity and per cent disease incidence, the treatment 2 (P. fluorescens A4) was the most effective from among T1, T3, T4 and T5 treatments. Overall results of this study suggest that bacterial antagonists may be potential biocontrol agents for biological promotion of the health and growth of button mushroom.     

Effects of Caenorhabditis elegans (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) on the spread of the bacterium Pseudomonas tolaasii in mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)

The effects of mass-produced saprobic rhabditid nematodes, Caenorhabditis elegans on the spread of the bacterial blotch pathogen, Pseudomonas tolaasii , were studied in mushroom growth chambers. C. elegans significantly reduced the intensity of blotch on sporophores. Repeated isolations of the bacterial flora from the gut of C. elegans recovered from mushroom sporophores during cropping, revealed the presence of Pseudomonas fluorescens biovar reactans . All the isolates of P. fluorescens biovar reactans isolated from nematodes were antagonists of P. tolaasii .
C. elegans produced much larger populations in monoxenic cultures with P. fluorescens biovar reactans than with P. tolaasii . It is suggested that as C. elegans selects P. fluorescens biovar reactans rather than P. tolaasii as a food substrate it probably spreads the antagonist in the mushroom crop and may contribute to the control of bacterial blotch.     

有害疣孢霉菌与双孢蘑菇的互作关系

通过菌丝对峙、双重培养,以及对发病双孢蘑菇子实体的显微观察,探讨有害疣孢霉菌Mycogone perniciosa（MP0012）与双孢蘑菇Agaricus bisporus（As2796）之间的互作关系。结果表明,在菌丝对峙生长阶段有害疣孢霉菌菌丝不侵入双孢蘑菇菌丝体内,两者可交叉生长,对双孢蘑菇生长影响不显著;对峙与双重培养均显示有害疣孢霉菌菌丝会产生对双孢蘑菇菌丝生长的抑制作用的挥发性物质,造成双孢蘑菇菌丝扭结断裂。同时试验证实了双孢蘑菇菌丝会促进有害疣孢霉菌厚垣孢子的产生和萌发、菌丝生长和发育。侵染实验结果表明,有害疣孢霉菌可直接侵染双孢蘑菇子实体,引起双孢蘑菇子实体病害;对罹病子实体显微观察结果发现,发病前期双孢蘑菇子实体表面长出绒毛状病原菌丝,菌柄中空,菌褶褐变腐烂并长出病原菌丝;发病中期双孢蘑菇子实体内菌丝组织会出现萎缩裂解现象,在近有害疣孢霉菌菌丝一侧的双孢蘑菇子实体菌丝细胞壁被降解;发病后期双孢蘑菇子实体菌丝组织基本消失。由此初步判断有害疣孢霉菌对双孢蘑菇的寄生类型偏向于死体营养型。     

应用RAPD技术分析两个双孢蘑菇遗传家系

应用ＲＡＰＤ技术分析两个由同工酶为遗传标记建立的典型双孢蘑菇遗传家系中各亲子菌株间的遗传相关性,结果表明,单孢同校体的ＲＡＰＤ图谱较异核体而言有单一化的倾向;同时,随着遗传代数的增加,杂种子代与出发异核亲本间的遗传差异逐渐增大;研究结果还进一步印证同核单孢杂交比传统的单抱、多孢筛选更易产生优势明显的杂种．     

双孢蘑菇遗传多样性分析

应用AFLP指纹技术对双孢蘑菇的20个野生菌株和5个栽培品种的遗传多样性进行了研究。AFLP指纹揭示出20个野生异核体菌株所固的基因型。5个商业品种表现出比较一致的AFLP指纹,但也显示出它们之间的一些差别。由单孢分离获得的同核体菌株携带着部分异核体菌株的AFLP指纹;由同一子实体分离得到的大部分单孢菌株是异核体菌株,它们具有与其亲本一致的AFLP指纹。UPGMA分析揭示出2个与地理分布（美洲、欧洲）和相对应的组。研究结果表明：（1）在野生菌株之间存在着明显的遗传差异;（2）大多数单孢分离的菌株具有与母本一致的遗传物质;（3）野生菌株间的遗传变异大于栽培品种间的变异;（4）在双孢蘑菇的遗传多样性分析中,AFLP技术是非常有效的工具。     

Respiratory pathways in Agaricus bisporus and Scytalidium thermophilum

Abstract The respiratory pathways of Agaricus bisporus and Scytalidium thermophilum were studied. A. bisporus appeared to possess both a cyanide-sensitive and a cyanide-insensitive respiration while in S. thermophilum the cyande-insensitive respiration was absent. Growth experiments showed the ecological advantage for A. bisporus under conditions where cytochrome mediated respiration is inhibited.     

Differences in microfibrils in the walls of Agaricus bisporus secondary mycelium

Thick fibres mainly located in longitudinal and parallel arrays were observed on the outer surface of vegetative mycelial walls of Agaricus bisporus treated to remove the polysaccharide mucilage. When thick fibres were removed from the cell wall, by alkali treatment, thin fibres with predominantly transverse orientation were observed. The former have been identified to be composed of α-glucan and the latter of chitin. Both different types of fibres constitute the skeletal components of the wall in which matrix materials are embedded.     

褐蘑菇碱提物降血糖作用研究

目的：研究褐蘑菇碱提物的降血糖作用。方法：四氧嘧啶灌胃造高血糖小鼠模型,随机分成6组,分别是正常对照组、模型对照组、高剂量组、中剂量组、低剂量组、阳性对照组,前两组以生理盐水连续灌胃7d,阳性对照组灌胃消渴丸溶液连续7d。高、中、低剂量组（100、200、400mg/kg）以褐蘑菇碱提物溶液连续灌胃7d,摘眼球取血,测定空腹血糖值。结果：高、中、低剂量组对糖尿病小鼠的降糖率分别是16.9%、20.2%和15.1%,阳性对照组的降糖率是25.1%。结论：褐蘑菇碱提物中剂量组降糖效果要优于高、低剂量组。褐蘑菇碱提物能显著降低四氧嘧啶所制备的糖尿病小鼠血糖浓度。     

Evidence for genotypic differences between the two siderovars of Pseudomonas tolaasii,cause of brown blotch disease of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus

Sixteen representative isolates of Pseudomonas tolaasii, the causal agent of brown blotch of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus, were previously assigned to two siderovars (sv1 and sv2) on the basis of pyoverdines synthesized. Each isolate was pathogenic and produced a typical white line precipitate when cultured adjacent to Pseudomonas "reactans" strain LMG 5329. These 16 isolates of P. tolaasii, representing sv1 and sv2, were further characterized using genotypic methods to examine the relationships between the isolates. Rep-PCR studies revealed two distinct patterns from these isolates, which were consistent with the siderovar grouping. Ribotyping differentiated P. tolaasii LMG 2342T (sv1) and PS 3a (sv2) into two distinct ribotypes. A pair of primers, targeted to a 2.1-kb fragment of tl1 (encoding a tolaasin peptide synthetase), yielded the same PCR product from P. tolaasii LMG 2342T (sv1) and PS 22.2 (sv1), but not from PS 3a (sv2). Southern blot analysis indicated that homologues of tl1 are present in PS 3a, but the pattern of hybridization differed from PS 22.2 and LMG 2342T. Sequence determination and analysis of the internally transcribed spacer region ITSI for P. tolaasii LMG 2342T, LMG 6641, and PS 3a strains further supported the presence of the two siderovars. It is concluded that considerable genotypic differences exist among Finnish isolates of P. tolaasii causing brown blotch disease on the cultivated mushroom, which is in agreement with the phenotypic diversity highlighted through previous siderotyping studies.     

褐蘑菇水溶性多糖抗氧化活性研究

采用水提醇沉以及sevag去蛋白的方法获得褐蘑菇水溶性多糖(WPPA)。通过测定还原力、超氧阴离子清除率、羟基自由基清除率和抑制H2O2诱导红细胞氧化溶血实验评价WPPA抗氧化活性。结果表明:WPPA具有较强的还原力,对O2-.和.OH具有较强的清除作用,IC50分别为527μg/mL、310μg/mL;对H2O2诱导红细胞氧化溶血及MDA生成有很强的抑制作用,IC50分别为700μg/mL和541μg/mL。说明WPPA在一定浓度内具有较强的抗氧化能力。     

双孢蘑菇不同品种感染有害疣孢霉后防御酶活性变化

通过测定同一时期不同品种双孢蘑菇子实体接种和未接种情况下,子实体内苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)、过氧化物酶(POD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)和多酚氧化酶(PPO)等4种防御酶活性变化,为研究双孢蘑菇品种对有害疣孢霉Mycogone perniciosa的抗病性差异提供科学数据。结果表明:以双孢蘑菇As258、As2796和W192为材料,在接种处理后,各品种双孢蘑菇子实体内苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)、过氧化物酶(POD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)和多酚氧化酶(PPO)活性变化不同。双孢蘑菇W192品种4种酶活峰值最高,其次是As2796和As258。说明这4种酶与双孢蘑菇抗有害疣孢霉有一定的关联。     

低温保鲜的双孢蘑菇硬度与生理特性变化

研究双孢蘑菇Agaricus bisporus在4 ℃环境下贮藏3、6、10、14 d后生理品质的变化情况。结果表明,在4 ℃低温保鲜环境下双孢蘑菇的硬度下降较慢,延缓了可溶性蛋白质和POD、SOD、CAT等酶的降解,V?含量在第3天迅速下降后,一直保持稳定的水平,MDA含量在贮藏第10天才迅速上升。说明低温保鲜对双孢蘑菇贮藏过程中的品质保持具有积极的正向作用,可延长双孢蘑菇的货架期。     

不同地区双孢蘑菇中蘑菇氨酸含量的比较研究

蘑菇氨酸曾被怀疑具有潜在的致癌效应,但其生理作用目前还存在争议.为比较分析我国不同地区双孢蘑菇中蘑菇氨酸含量,本研究采用反相高效液相色谱法检测了我国5个双孢蘑菇产区30份新鲜双孢蘑菇样品中蘑菇氨酸的含量.结果显示,我国双孢蘑菇中蘑菇氨酸含量范围较广,为155.6～934.4mg/kg FW.在此基础上,分析了菌株类型、培养料类型和采收季节等因素对蘑菇氨酸含量的影响.结果表明,不同菌株、不同栽培条件下生产的双孢蘑菇中蘑菇氨酸的含量差异明显.     

一种有效的双孢蘑菇原生质体制备及瞬时转化体系

原生质体的制备与再生是双孢蘑菇进行遗传转化的基础,通过研究得到制备双孢蘑菇原生质体的最佳条件是：取培养15d的菌丝振荡培养7d,溶壁酶浓度为1mg/mL的0.6mol/L KCl酶解液、温度30℃、45r/min条件下摇培10h,经过富集精制后的原生质体（4×10 ⁶/mL）可进行瞬时转化。利用Ab-eGFP进行转化,在20min、24h、48h后可观察到GFP荧光,并且在24h和48h可恢复细胞壁增殖,瞬时转化后亦可复壁增殖。研究结果为双孢蘑菇原生质体的稳定遗传转化及后续利用原生质体建立CRISPR-Cas9基因组编辑系统等提供一定的理论依据。     

Pseudomonas tolaasii: extra-genomic factor mediates toxin production and efficiency

Pseudomonas tolaasii is responsible for brown blotch symptoms on Agaricus bisporus. Investigations among 15 P. tolaasii wild-type strains revealed the existence of an extra-genomic factor. Pseudomonas tolaasii CNBP2152D, a spontaneous derivative of the wild-type strain CNBP2152 which has lost the factor, exhibited a significant decline in pathogenicity. Comparison of blotch symptoms induced by toxins extracted from CNBP2152 and CNBP2152D showed that the extra-genomic factor mediates toxin production and efficiency.     

Resource allocation ability of wild isolates of Agaricus bisporus on conventional mushroom compost

Abstract: Twenty-one wild isolates from two distinct sites and six cultivated strains of Agaricus bisporus were cultivated on a conventional mushroom compost. Their degradative abilities were studied by measuring 12 extracellular enzyme activities produced during mycelial growth. Differences in production of enzyme activities and in compost colonisation were observed between the three groups of strains and within each group. They were used to define the mechanisms of resource allocation in mushroom compost. The ability to grow and produce sporophores on mushroom compost appeared to be linked with the production of a balanced pool of enzymes including moderate levels of polysaccharidases active on straw cell walls and of enzymes able to degrade microbial biomass and microbial products.     

农杆菌介导双孢蘑菇AS2796转化体系的优化

双孢蘑菇Agaricus bisporus是一种药食皆宜的食用真菌,具有极高的经济价值,近年来在双孢蘑菇全基因组测序完成后,功能基因组学的研究逐步提上日程。其中,高效的遗传转化体系作为技术基础成为研究重点。农杆菌介导的遗传转化体系作为一种高效的功能基因组研究方法,在双孢蘑菇中已经得到了广泛的应用,但是仍然存在着效率较低的问题有待解决。为了提高双孢蘑菇的农杆菌转化效率,找到双孢蘑菇遗传转化的最优条件,本实验首先对双孢蘑菇的潮霉素抗性压力进行了筛选,结果显示20mg/L的潮霉素浓度可以抑制菌丝生长,而50mg/L的潮霉素浓度则可以完全抑制菌丝生长。其次,对农杆菌菌株、菌液浓度、乙酰丁香酮浓度、菌丝培养时间以及浸染时间做了L16（4 ⁵）的正交实验,通过对各因素影响的分析,得出对转化效率影响最大的因素为菌丝培养时间和农杆菌菌株,且当菌株为LBA4404、菌液浓度OD₆₀₀=0.8、乙酰丁香酮浓度为100μmol/L、菌丝培养时间为40d、浸染时间为10min时,农杆菌介导的双孢蘑菇遗传转化效率最高。     

Several pseudomonads,associated with the cultivated mushrooms Agaricus bisporus or Pleurotus sp., are hemolytic

Pseudomonas tolaasii, causing brown blotch disease on cultivated mushrooms, and yielding a white line precipitate towards P. “reactans”, has been shown to induce lysis of erythrocytes. Some Finnish strains isolated from diseased mushroom fruit bodies, although harboring the typical features of P. tolaasii, proved to be distinct, and have been allocated to a nov. sp. P. costantinii. We examined in these study whether all brown blotch causing agents were hemolytic. The induction of erythrocytes lysis seemed to be a rather common feature of mushroom associated-pseudomonads, especially for strains involved in the production of a white-line-in agar.     

Evaluation of Genetic Diversity and Population Structure Analysis among Germplasm of Agaricus bisporus by SSR Markers

Agaricus bisporus is a popular edible mushroom that is cultivated worldwide. Due to its secondary homothallic nature, cultivated A. bisporus strains have low genetic diversity, and breeding novel strains is challenging. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of globally collected A. bisporus strains using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Agaricus bisporus strains were divided based on genetic distance-based groups and model-based subpopulations. The major allele frequency (MAF), number of genotypes (NG), number of alleles (NA), observed heterozygosity (HO), expected heterozygosity (HE), and polymorphic information content (PIC) were calculated, and genetic distance, population structure, genetic differentiation, and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) were assessed. Strains were divided into two groups by distance-based analysis and into three subpopulations by model-based analysis. Strains in subpopulations POP A and POP B were included in Group I, and strains in subpopulation POP C were included in Group II. Genetic differentiation between strains was 99%. Marker AB-gSSR-1057 in Group II and subpopulation POP C was confirmed to be in HWE. These results will enhance A. bisporus breeding programs and support the protection of genetic resources.