Growth pattern of the Kamars--a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh,India

A cross sectional study of the physical growth status was made on 655 Kamar children (341 boys and 314 girls), aged 5 to 18 years, in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. The study aimed to find out the growth pattern of the Kamar children, which is considered to be a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh, India and was compared with another Indian tribe and the official data for all India (ICMR). Anthropometric measurements included height, weight, sitting height, biacromial diameter, biilliocrystal diameter, upper arm circumference, calf circumference and measurements of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds. All anthropometric measurements except skinfold thickness exhibit uniform increase with age in both sexes. However, when height and weight of the Kamar boys and girls were compared with the data for other tribes and for all India, the Kamar children (both boys and girls) indicated lower weight and height and the difference showed to be significant, for almost all ages. Kamar boys showed higher anthropometric values than girls in almost all measurements except in biilliocrystal diameter and in measured skinfolds. Poor socio-economic status of this primitive tribe may be one of the reasons for this poor growth pattern. However, in-depth study is necessary in order to arrive at any basic conclusions and to recommend any policy and interventions.     

Growth and nutritional status of the Bharia--a primitive tribe of Madhya Pradesh

This study is an attempt to understand the physical growth and nutritional status of Bharia, a primitive tribe of Central India. A cross sectional study was conducted on 551 children (283 boys and 268 girls) aged 4 to 18 years. Body weight, height, sitting height, head circumference, upper arm circumference, chest circumference, biceps, triceps, sub scapular and calf skin fold thickness were measured. Body Mass Index was calculated as weight/height2 to calculate chronic energy deficiency. All anthropometric measurements except skin fold measurement exhibit uniform increase with age in both the sexes. Age-specific Body Mass Index (BMI) indicated substantial changes and falls during pre-school age and rise in adolescence. The BMI according to the Indian standard was normal, but when the data was compared with the International standard malnutrition in both sexes was noticed in childhood. Boys remained undernourished after adolescence, while girls reached the normal growth patterns.     

Patterns of Growth Associated With the Timing of Adiposity Rebound

This study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of age of adiposity rebound (AR) on measures of fat mass between ages 7 and 11 years, maturity, and adiposity in 458 children from a birth cohort studied to age 26 years. Patterns of growth between ages 3 and 26 years and changes in fat mass index between 7 and 11 years in groups with early (<5.5 years for boys and <5 years for girls), average (between 5.5 and 7.5 years for boys and between 5 and 7 years for girls), and late AR (≥7.5 years for boys and ≥7 years for girls) are described. The mean z‐scores for BMI, height, and weight increased between age 3 years and adolescence in the early‐rebound group and decreased in the late‐rebound group. The differences were maintained until adulthood for BMI and weight. Disproportionately high increases in fat mass index during growth (7–11 years), more advanced bone age in boys at age 7 years, and earlier menarche in girls were evident in the early‐rebound group. The relative risks at 26 years of being overweight (BMI 25–29.9 kg/m²) and obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m²) were 2.70 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.55, 4.66) and 5.91 (95% CI: 3.03, 11.55) respectively, using the average group as the reference. The corresponding relative risks for adult waist girths exceeding international cut points were 2.12 (95% CI: 1.09, 4.13) and 3.32 (95% CI: 1.46, 7.54). Thus, early rebound is associated with increased depositions of fat in middle childhood, and risks associated with early rebound persist at least until early adulthood.     

Sex differences in height and sitting height in the Belgian population

Sex differences in growth were studied in a longitudinal study of 39 boys and 31 girls for sitting height. Individual growth patterns were determined by means of Preece Baines model 1. The results showed no significant bias in the fits of height and sitting height in boys and girls. Girls fits were significantly better than those of the boys for both height and sitting height. Univariate analysis by means of Mann-Whitney test showed significant sex differences for all function and biological parameters of height and sitting height excepted for s₁ parameter (the rate constant controlling pubertal velocity). Linear discriminant analysis revealed that the strongest sex differences for the timing and size parameters at adolescent. Peak velocity at adolescent was slightly less discriminating between the two sexes and velocity at take-off showed the least sex difference. These trends were similar for height and sitting height. Decomposition of sex differences in adult size showed that the major contributor to adult the sex differences is the effect of the later onset of the adolescent growth spurt in boys than in girls. Sex differences in adult phenotypes of height and sitting height are to a slightly lesser extent due to the greater adolescent gain in boys while prepubertal sex differences are almost negligible.     

Age and gender differences in the physical activity patterns of urban schoolchildren in Korea and China

Physical activity in childhood is important as it may establish adult behavior. However, few studies on physical activity in children have been conducted, especially in Asian children.We performed anthropometric measurements of 159 school children in two grades (grade 5: 10-11 years old and grade 8: 13-14 years old) from urban areas of Korea (n=79) and China (n=80). The total daily energy expenditure (TEE) was estimated for 7 consecutive days using an accelerometer.The mean height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) for boys and girls in both countries exceeded the US national reference median (CDC, 2000). Physical activity levels (PALs) were significantly higher in the grade 5 group (10-11 years old) and in girls than in boys for both grades. No significant difference in PALs or daily step-counts (STPs) was observed between 'normal' and 'overweight' subgroups based on BMI, although negative correlations were found between weight, BMI, or %body fat vs. PAL or STP among Korean girls and Chinese boys (r=0.32-0.38, all p<0.05). Daily variation in physical activity was observed in Korean children. In the Koreans (boys and girls, both grades pooled), TEE and STP were significantly lower than the 7-day average on Sundays, whereas for the Chinese population, STP did not clearly differ between the weekends and the week averages.In summary, PALs were higher in the fifth grade boys and girls than in the eighth grade children; interestingly, girls tended to have higher PALs than boys. Daily variation in physical activity was observed in Korea; children were less active on Sundays.     

Changes in body size, shape and nutritional status of Middle-Class Bengali boys of Kolkata, India, 1982–2002

Growth changes over time among school-aged boys in Kolkata, India, have been investigated using two surveys: 1982--1983 (n=816) and 1999--2002 (n=1187). The two surveys were implemented according to highly similar protocols which strongly adds to the reliability and accuracy of the results of the study. Age-specific average height, weight and BMI all increased during these two decades (by respectively, 3.2cm, 6.1kg and 2.1kg/m2), while relative sitting height and sitting height-subischial leg length ratio decreased for almost all ages between 7.0 and 16.0 years. Moreover, the prevalence of stunting and thinness declined (stunting from 11.2% to 4.9%, p<0.01, thinness from 50.5% to 22%, p<0.01), while the prevalence of overweight increased (from 4.7% to 17.2%, p<0.01). Through analysis of variance, the relationships between various socio-economic factors and anthropometric traits are analyzed. Factors strongly related with positive changes in anthropometric traits are maternal education and family expenditure.     

Comparison of measured and parents' reported height and weight in children and adolescents

The objectives of this study were to (i) compare parent-reported height and weight to measured height and weight in children between ages 2 and 17 years, (ii) investigate correlations between magnitude of error of parent-reported data or refusal to estimate height and weight with gender, race/ethnicity, child's age, and age-specific BMI z-score, and (iii) determine sensitivity and specificity of identifying obese youth based on parent-reported data. The authors studied 1,430 consecutive outpatients between ages 2 and 17 years at an outpatient orthopedic clinic. At the initial visit, parents completed a questionnaire including their child's height and weight; height and weight were then measured. Mean height error was very small, with slight overestimation in boys and underestimation in girls. Mean weight error increased with age (P < 0.001), and girls had a larger mean weight error (1.29 kg, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.65, 1.45) than boys (0.85 kg, 95% CI: 0.8: 0.58, 1.12). Mean weight error also increased with age-specific BMI z-score (r = 0.32, P < 0.001). Correlation between weight error and age-specific BMI z-score was higher among black children (r = 0.45, P < 0.001) than among Hispanic children (r = 0.37, P < 0.001) and was lowest among white children (r = 0.29, P < 0.001). Refusal or inability to estimate weight did not correlate with age-specific BMI z-score. Twenty-one percent of children who were obese would not be identified by using parent-reported data to calculate the BMI.     

Gender-specific growth patterns for stature,sitting height and limbs length in Croatian children and youth (3 to 18 years of age)

In a cross-sectional study of growth, 5,155 children (2,591 females, 2,564 males) from the town of Zagreb (Croatia) were measured. Four traits of linear dimensionality (stature, sitting height, arm and leg lengths) were studied in the age span of 3 to 18 years. A significant average annual increase of all four anthropometric parameters were observed up to 14 and 15 years of age in girls and 16 years of age in boys, showing that girls had a shorter growing period. In the prepubertal period until 9 years of age, gender differences were negligible. At the age of 10, boys were overgrown by girls in all parameters due to the earlier onset of puberty in girls. The growth gains for girls, when compared with those for boys, show a different pattern across variables. The female growth advantage remained in a two years period for the limbs length, but in a three year period for stature and the longest, for 4 years, for sitting height. The male predominance in size had an onset at the age of 13 for the limbs and in the age of 14 for stature and sitting height. The patterns of sexual dimorphism in stature and sitting height during growing years are similar to those observed in other populations of Europe. Growth of Croatian children and youth is very similar to that of the tallest European populations.     

Overweight in urban schoolchildren assessed by body mass index and body fat mass in Dalian, China

In order to assess overweight in urban schoolchildren (298 boys and 298 girls) aged 9-16 years in Dalian, China, their body height, weight, skinfolds at triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac, and body circumferences of mid-upper arm, waist and hip were measured. The results showed that the prevalence of overweight, based on the United States Centers for Disease Control 2000 reference values using body mass index (BMI), was 22.9% in boys and 10.4% in girls, which was higher than that of indicated in Chinese national surveys of recent decades. More boys were overweight than girls due to excessive increase in body fat, although the prevalence of overweight in girls prevalence increased from 13 years. Discussion here focuses on the effects of behavioral patterns on overweight in Dalian schoolchildren, paying attention to gender difference.     

Do American born Japanese children still grow faster than native Japanese?

Growth patterns of Japanese schoolchildren in Hawaii, composed of 2,954 boys and 3,213 girls aged between 11 and 17, were compared with those comparable groups of Japanese schoolchildren in Japan based on the data published by the Japanese Ministry of Education. Growth characteristics studied were height, weight, and relative weight index, weight/(height). The Hawaii-Japanese boys were taller at early ages but the difference disappeared by age 16. Native Japanese girls were shorter than Hawaii-Japanese until age 13, but they overtook the latter by age 14, exceeding them in height after age 15. A similar pattern was found in weights of girls but the Hawaii-Japanese boys remained consistently heavier by 5.0 to 9.0 kg than native Japanese. The relative weight measure indicated that the Hawaii boys were more "obese" than native Japanese boys for the growth period studied; whereas the same tendency was maintained until age 15 in girls. These observations indicate a marked degree of convergence of the patterns of physical growth of the two populations, whose differences were unmistakably in favor of American born children in earlier studies. It is concluded that the convergence is due largely to the improved environmental conditions in Japan in recent years.     

A modified locally weighted method for developing reference standards for height, weight, and body mass index of boys and girls aged 4 to 18 in Taiwan

The objectives of this study are to modify the locally weighted method to obtain reference values for height, weight, and body mass indices (BMI): to describe the median growth velocity of children aged 4 to 18 in Taiwan; and to compare those values with data from other countries. We modified the LOCAL method to generate empirical percentiles and used the locally weighed regression to smooth the percentiles. We examined the smoothed percentiles against original data to ensure that smoothed percentiles were within 1% of errors. We used numerical differentiation of the 50th percentiles of height and weight to obtain the velocity of growth in height and weight, respectively. We applied our method to the data of the Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan, 1993-1996, which was a multistaged stratified sample. The sample included 2351 boys and 2355 girls aged 4 to 18. Our results indicate that (a) the proposed method, which utilizes the original data, guarantees the percentiles within 1% errors; (b) before puberty, the height, weight, and BMI of Taiwanese children are not much different from those of their counterparts in Western countries; and (c) after puberty and at the stage of young adulthood, the height, weight, and BMI of Taiwanese youth are below the levels of those in Western young adults. Genetic makeup and dietary patterns may contribute to these phenomena.     

Socioeconomic variation in the growth status of children in a subsistence agricultural community

Socioeconomic variation in the growth status of 293 children, 6 through 13 years of age, from a rural subsistence agricultural community in southern Mexico was considered. Socioeconomic status was based on an index developed from landholdings, household goods, and occupation, and households were classified as high and low status. Growth measurements included weight, stature, sitting height, estimated leg length, arm and estimated arm muscle circumferences, triceps skinfold, and right gripping strength. The growth status of boys showed a clear socioeconomic differential, while that of girls did not. The results are consistent with the generalization that males are more influenced by environmental stresses than females, including, of course, the favorable stress of improved socioeconomic circumstances, even within seemingly single-class rural communities.     

Reference values for height, weight and body mass index of German born Turkish children

Turkish children and adolescents born in Northern Europe grow different from native Northern European children, but reference values for height, weight and BMI for these children do not exist. With this study, we intend to provide growth standards for German born Turkish children. Data were obtained from 797 Turkish children and adolescents born in Germany age 0-25.8 years (males), respectively 0-18.3 years (females). We generated synthetic reference values for height, weight, and BMI. The results show that Turkish children and adolescents are heavier after the age of 6 years, and that they remain short after puberty. Eighteen year old Turkish men, and 15-year-old Turkish women are shorter (males 175.2 cm vs. 180.4 cm, p < 0.05; females 159.3 cm vs. 165.0 cm, p < 0.05), and heavier than Germans. Six out of 53 young Turkish men and 9 out of 100 young Turkish women were obese. Twelve out of 53 young Turkish men (23%) and 18 out of 100 young Turkish women (18%) have fallen below the 3rd centile for height. It can be concluded that growth of Turkish children and adolescents born in Germany significantly differs from native children. Reference LMS values for body height, weight and BMI of German born Turkish boys and girls are presented.     

A survey on growth and sexual development of adolescent students in Changhua City: growth of body height and weight

In order to understand the physical growth and sexual development of contemporary adolescents, a cross-sectional survey was conducted during the period September 1983 to May 1984. The population came from all the pupils from 4th grade up, and all the junior and senior high students of Changhua City. By using stratified cluster sampling, 1419 boys and 1599 girls participated, ranging in age from 8 to 19 years. Body weight and height were measured. Growth spurt is a unique event during adolescence. It is well shown in the distance curves and pseudo-velocity curves of body height and weight. In boys, the growth spurt of height spanned from 12.0 to 14.8 years, with peak height velocity (PHV) at 13.5 years. In girls it was from 10.0 to 12.6 years and peaked at 11.5 years. The growth spurt of weight occurred from 12.0 to 15.9 years in boys with peak weight velocity (PWV) at 14.5 years, while girls had a growth spurt at 10.0-12.7 years with PWV at 11.5 years. Girls entered into the growth spurt about 2 years earlier, and also entered into PHV, PWV, two and three years earlier respectively than boys, while boys had a more intense and longer growth during the growth spurt than girls. Between 10.0-13.0 years girls were taller than boys, and between 12.0-13.0 years they were heavier than boys. However, from 13.5 years onward girls were soon surpassed by boys both in height and weight. Growth in height after 16.5 years in boys and after 15.5 in girls was minimal. Growth in weight in boys also became minimal after 16.5 years while girls weight even dropped a little bit after 16.5 years. At the mean age of 17.5 years, boys were 168.1 cm, girls were 156.2 cm in average, boys being 12 cm taller than girls after reaching their final height.     

Prevalence of overweight and obesity among the affluent adolescent school children of Amritsar, Punjab

In the present study, an attempt has been made to assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity in adolescent children (between 10-15 years of age) of the affluent families of Amritsar district of Punjab, a state in rapid economic and epidemiological transition. A total of 640 children (323 boys and 317girls) were measured for height and weight. Overweight and obesity were assessed using age and sex-specific body mass index (BMI) cut-off points. 9.91% boys and 11.99% girls were overweight, and 4.95% boys and 6.31% girls were obese. The prevalence of overweight and obesity among the affluent children in Amritsar was as high or higher as in some industrialized countries.     

Stature and body weight growth patterns from longitudinal data of Japanese children born during World War II

Stature and body weight data of 100 boys and 100 girls from 7 to 17 years of age in Shimodate City who were born during World War II were longitudinally analyzed. The children were significantly smaller and lighter throughout their growth period than those born 11 years after the end of the war. The correlation coefficient between statures at each age and at age 17 showed a gradual increase with increasing age, while that between statures at each age and at age 7 decreased with age. However, a drop in the correlation coefficient was found during puberty, at age 11 for girls and at age 13 for boys. Comparing the normalized distance from mean values of stature and body weight at age 7, at puberty, and at age 17, only 51% of the children continued to be in the same relative position for both height and weight, 6% of boys and 4% of girls showing a decreasing pattern for both and 4% of boys and 7% of girls showing an increasing pattern for both. Thus, about 60% of the children of either sex presented parallel stature and body weight growth patterns for ages from 7 to 17.     

Physical activity levels of normal-weight and overweight girls and boys during primary school recess

Objective: This study aimed to compare moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) in normal‐weight and overweight boys and girls during school recess. Research Methods and Procedures: Four hundred twenty children, age 6 to 10 years, were randomly selected from 25 schools in England. Three hundred seventy‐seven children completed the study. BMI was calculated from height and weight measurements, and heart rate reserve thresholds of 50% and 75% reflected children's engagement in MVPA and VPA, respectively. Results: There was a significant main effect for sex and a significant interaction between BMI category and sex for the percent of recess time spent in MVPA and VPA. Normal‐weight girls were the least active group, compared with overweight boys and girls who were equally active. Fifty‐one boys and 24 girls of normal weight achieved the 40% threshold; of these, 30 boys and 10 girls exceeded 50% of recess time in MVPA. Eighteen overweight boys and 22 overweight girls exceeded the 40% threshold, whereas 8 boys and 8 girls exceeded the 50% threshold. Discussion: Overweight boys were significantly less active than their normal‐weight male counterparts; this difference did not hold true for girls. Even though nearly double the number of normal‐weight children achieved the 40% of MVPA during recess compared with overweight children, physical activity promotion in school playgrounds needs to be targeted not only at overweight but at other health parameters, as 40 overweight children met the 40% MVPA target proposed for recess.     

Secular Trends in Growth and Nutritional Status of Mozambican School-Aged Children and Adolescents

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine secular changes in growth and nutritional status of Mozambican children and adolescents between 1992, 1999 and 2012.

Methods

3374 subjects (1600 boys, 1774 girls), distributed across the three time points (523 subjects in 1992; 1565 in 1999; and 1286 in 2012), were studied. Height and weight were measured, BMI was computed, and WHO cut-points were used to define nutritional status. ANCOVA models were used to compare height, weight and BMI across study years; chi-square was used to determine differences in the nutritional status prevalence across the years.

Results

Significant differences for boys were found for height and weight (p<0.05) across the three time points, where those from 2012 were the heaviest, but those in 1999 were the tallest, and for BMI the highest value was observed in 2012 (1992<2012, 1999<2012). Among girls, those from 1999 were the tallest (1992<1999, 1999>2012), and those from 2012 had the highest BMI (1999<2012). In general, similar patterns were observed when mean values were analyzed by age. A positive trend was observed for overweight and obesity prevalences, whereas a negative trend emerged for wasting, stunting-wasting (in boys), and normal-weight (in girls); no clear trend was evident for stunting.

Conclusion

Significant positive changes in growth and nutritional status were observed among Mozambican youth from 1992 to 2012, which are associated with economic, social and cultural transitional processes, expressing a dual burden in this population, with reduction in malnourished youth in association with an increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity.     

Growth charts for Croatian school children and secular trends in past twenty years

The aim of this study was to construct new Croatian growth charts for body height and weight of boys and girls aged 6.5 to 18.5 years and to investigate differences between our and pre-existing studies. Analysis was based on a multistage stratified sample representative for school children aged 6.5 to 18.5, 6046 boys and 5656 girls. Growth reference was constructed using LMS method. Present results demonstrated an increment of body height and weight during the last two decades. Highest increase of body height is in boys aged 13-14 years 6.5 cm, in girls aged 12 years is 5.0 cm. Highest increase of body weight is in 16 year age group of boys 8.7 kg and in 11-12 year age group of girls 5.2 kg. In conclusion, regarding presence of secular trend because previously used growth charts in Croatia are obsolete.     

Change with age in regression construction of fat percentage for BMI in school-age children

In this study, curvilinear regression was applied to the relationship between BMI and body fat percentage, and an analysis was done to see whether there are characteristic changes in that curvilinear regression from elementary to middle school. Then, by simultaneously investigating the changes with age in BMI and body fat percentage, the essential differences in BMI and body fat percentage were demonstrated. The subjects were 789 boys and girls (469 boys, 320 girls) aged 7.5 to 14.5 years from all parts of Japan who participated in regular sports activities. Body weight, total body water (TBW), soft lean mass (SLM), body fat percentage, and fat mass were measured with a body composition analyzer (Tanita BC-521 Inner Scan), using segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis & multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis. Height was measured with a digital height measurer. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as body weight (km) divided by the square of height (m). The results for the validity of regression polynomials of body fat percentage against BMI showed that, for both boys and girls, first-order polynomials were valid in all school years. With regard to changes with age in BMI and body fat percentage, the results showed a temporary drop at 9 years in the aging distance curve in boys, followed by an increasing trend. Peaks were seen in the velocity curve at 9.7 and 11.9 years, but the MPV was presumed to be at 11.9 years. Among girls, a decreasing trend was seen in the aging distance curve, which was opposite to the changes in the aging distance curve for body fat percentage.