The mitotic spindle mediates inheritance of the Golgi ribbon structure

The mammalian Golgi ribbon disassembles during mitosis and reforms in both daughter cells after division. Mitotic Golgi membranes concentrate around the spindle poles, suggesting that the spindle may control Golgi partitioning. To test this, cells were induced to divide asymmetrically with the entire spindle segregated into only one daughter cell. A ribbon reforms in the nucleated karyoplasts, whereas the Golgi stacks in the cytoplasts are scattered. However, the scattered Golgi stacks are polarized and transport cargo. Microinjection of Golgi extract together with tubulin or incorporation of spindle materials rescues Golgi ribbon formation. Therefore, the factors required for postmitotic Golgi ribbon assembly are transferred by the spindle, but the constituents of functional stacks are partitioned independently, suggesting that Golgi inheritance is regulated by two distinct mechanisms.     

GM130 and GRASP65-dependent lateral cisternal fusion allows uniform Golgi-enzyme distribution

The mammalian Golgi apparatus exists as stacks of cisternae that are laterally linked to form a continuous membrane ribbon, but neither the molecular requirements for, nor the purpose of, Golgi ribbon formation are known. Here, we demonstrate that ribbon formation is mediated by specific membrane-fusion events that occur during Golgi assembly, and require the Golgi proteins GM130 and GRASP65. Furthermore, these GM130 and GRASP65-dependent lateral cisternal-fusion reactions are necessary to achieve uniform distribution of enzymes in the Golgi ribbon. The membrane continuity created by ribbon formation facilitates optimal processing conditions in the biosynthetic pathway.     

Golgi biogenesis

The Golgi is an essential membrane-bound organelle in the secretary pathway of eukaryotic cells. In mammalian cells, the Golgi stacks are integrated into a continuous perinuclear ribbon, which poses a challenge for the daughter cells to inherit this membrane organelle during cell division. To facilitate proper partitioning, the mammalian Golgi ribbon is disassembled into vesicles in early mitosis. Following segregation into the daughter cells, a functional Golgi is reformed. Here we summarize our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that control the mitotic Golgi disassembly and postmitotic reassembly cycle in mammalian cells.     

Mena–GRASP65 interaction couples actin polymerization to Golgi ribbon linking

In mammalian cells, the Golgi reassembly stacking protein 65 (GRASP65) has been implicated in both Golgi stacking and ribbon linking by forming trans-oligomers through the N-terminal GRASP domain. Because the GRASP domain is globular and relatively small, but the gaps between stacks are large and heterogeneous, it remains puzzling how GRASP65 physically links Golgi stacks into a ribbon. To explore the possibility that other proteins may help GRASP65 in ribbon linking, we used biochemical methods and identified the actin elongation factor Mena as a novel GRASP65-binding protein. Mena is recruited onto the Golgi membranes through interaction with GRASP65. Depleting Mena or disrupting actin polymerization resulted in Golgi fragmentation. In cells, Mena and actin were required for Golgi ribbon formation after nocodazole washout; in vitro, Mena and microfilaments enhanced GRASP65 oligomerization and Golgi membrane fusion. Thus Mena interacts with GRASP65 to promote local actin polymerization, which facilitates Golgi ribbon linking.     

Golgi Ribbon Unlinking: An Organelle-Based G2/M Checkpoint

Cell cycle checkpoints have mostly been associated with signaling mechanisms monitoring the genetic material for abnormalities and inaccuracy in partitioning, such as DNA lesions or failure in chromosome attachment to kinetochores. However, it becomes more evident that other checkpoints are turned on by cytoplasmic events, such as the cytoskeleton organisation and the organelle structure. Here, we summarize recent evidence strongly suggesting that the integrity of the Golgi ribbon, and more precisely the tubules interconnecting the Golgi stacks to form this ribbon, at late G2/early prophase, is linked to a Golgi-related G2/M checkpoint. A number of kinases phosphorylating a so far small subset of Golgi-localized proteins have been shown to promote the G2-specific Golgi ribbon unlinking allowing the cell to enter mitosis. When these kinases are inactivated or when the substrates cannot be phosphorylated, Golgi unlinking is prevented and the cells are blocked or delayed in G2 phase.     

Actin- and microtubule-dependent regulation of Golgi morphology by FHDC1

The Golgi apparatus is the central hub of intracellular trafficking and consists of tethered stacks of cis, medial, and trans cisternae. In mammalian cells, these cisternae are stitched together as a perinuclear Golgi ribbon, which is required for the establishment of cell polarity and normal subcellular organization. We previously identified FHDC1 (also known as INF1) as a unique microtubule-binding member of the formin family of cytoskeletal-remodeling proteins. We show here that endogenous FHDC1 regulates Golgi ribbon formation and has an apparent preferential association with the Golgi-derived microtubule network. Knockdown of FHDC1 expression results in defective Golgi assembly and suggests a role for FHDC1 in maintenance of the Golgi-derived microtubule network. Similarly, overexpression of FHDC1 induces dispersion of the Golgi ribbon into functional ministacks. This effect is independent of centrosome-derived microtubules and instead likely requires the interaction between the FHDC1 microtubule-binding domain and the Golgi-derived microtubule network. These effects also depend on the interaction between the FHDC1 FH2 domain and the actin cytoskeleton. Thus our results suggest that the coordination of actin and microtubule dynamics by FHDC1 is required for normal Golgi ribbon formation.     

The Golgin Tether Giantin Regulates the Secretory Pathway by Controlling Stack Organization within Golgi Apparatus

Golgins are coiled-coil proteins that play a key role in the regulation of Golgi architecture and function. Giantin, the largest golgin in mammals, forms a complex with p115, rab1, GM130, and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs), thereby facilitating vesicle tethering and fusion processes around the Golgi apparatus. Treatment with the microtubule destabilizing drug nocodazole transforms the Golgi ribbon into individual Golgi stacks. Here we show that siRNA-mediated depletion of giantin resulted in more dispersed Golgi stacks after nocodazole treatment than by control treatment, without changing the average cisternal length. Furthermore, depletion of giantin caused an increase in cargo transport that was associated with altered cell surface protein glycosylation. Drosophila S2 cells are known to have dispersed Golgi stacks and no giantin homolog. The exogenous expression of mammalian giantin cDNA in S2 cells resulted in clustered Golgi stacks, similar to the Golgi ribbon in mammalian cells. These results suggest that the spatial organization of the Golgi ribbon is mediated by giantin, which also plays a role in cargo transport and sugar modifications.     

GRASP65 controls Golgi position and structure during G2/M transition by regulating the stability of microtubules

The mammalian Golgi apparatus is organized in the form of a ribbon‐like structure positioned near the centrosome. Despite its multimodular organization, the Golgi complex is characterized by a prominent structural plasticity, which is crucial during essential physiological processes, such as the G2 phase of the cell cycle, during which the Golgi ribbon must be “unlinked” into isolated stacks to allow progression into mitosis. Here we show that the Golgi‐associated protein GRASP65, which is well known for its role in Golgi stacking and ribbon formation, is also required for the organization of the microtubule cytoskeleton. GRASP65 is not involved in microtubule nucleation or anchoring. Instead, it is required for the stabilization of newly nucleated microtubules, leading to their acetylation and clustering of Golgi stacks. Ribbon formation and microtubule stabilization are both regulated by JNK/ERK‐mediated phosphorylation of S274 of GRASP65, suggesting that this protein can coordinate the Golgi structure with microtubule organization. In agreement with an important role, tubulin acetylation is strongly reduced during the G2 phase of the cell cycle, allowing the separation of the Golgi stacks. Thus, our data reveal a fundamental role of GRASP65 in the integration of different stimuli to modulate Golgi structure and microtubule organization during cell division.     

Rapid degradation of GRASP55 and GRASP65 reveals their immediate impact on the Golgi structure

GRASP55 and GRASP65 have been implicated in stacking of Golgi cisternae and lateral linking of stacks within the Golgi ribbon. However, RNAi or gene knockout approaches to dissect their respective roles have often resulted in conflicting conclusions. Here, we gene-edited GRASP55 and/or GRASP65 with a degron tag in human fibroblasts, allowing for induced rapid degradation by the proteasome. We show that acute depletion of either GRASP55 or GRASP65 does not affect the Golgi ribbon, while chronic degradation of GRASP55 disrupts lateral connectivity of the ribbon. Acute double depletion of both GRASPs coincides with the loss of the vesicle tethering proteins GM130, p115, and Golgin-45 from the Golgi and compromises ribbon linking. Furthermore, GRASP55 and/or GRASP65 is not required for maintaining stacks or de novo assembly of stacked cisternae at the end of mitosis. These results demonstrate that both GRASPs are dispensable for Golgi stacking but are involved in maintaining the integrity of the Golgi ribbon together with GM130 and Golgin-45.     

The Golgi mitotic checkpoint is controlled by BARS-dependent fission of the Golgi ribbon into separate stacks in G2

The Golgi ribbon is a complex structure of many stacks interconnected by tubules that undergo fragmentation during mitosis through a multistage process that allows correct Golgi inheritance. The fissioning protein CtBP1-S/BARS (BARS) is essential for this, and is itself required for mitotic entry: a block in Golgi fragmentation results in cell-cycle arrest in G2, defining the 'Golgi mitotic checkpoint'. Here, we clarify the precise stage of Golgi fragmentation required for mitotic entry and the role of BARS in this process. Thus, during G2, the Golgi ribbon is converted into isolated stacks by fission of interstack connecting tubules. This requires BARS and is sufficient for G2/M transition. Cells without a Golgi ribbon are independent of BARS for Golgi fragmentation and mitotic entrance. Remarkably, fibroblasts from BARS-knockout embryos have their Golgi complex divided into isolated stacks at all cell-cycle stages, bypassing the need for BARS for Golgi fragmentation. This identifies the precise stage of Golgi fragmentation and the role of BARS in the Golgi mitotic checkpoint, setting the stage for molecular analysis of this process.     

Golgi complex fragmentation in G2/M transition: An organelle-based cell-cycle checkpoint

In mammalian cells, the Golgi complex is organized into a continuous membranous system known as the Golgi ribbon, which is formed by individual Golgi stacks that are laterally connected by tubular bridges. During mitosis, the Golgi ribbon undergoes extensive fragmentation through a multistage process that is required for its correct partitioning into the daughter cells. Importantly, inhibition of this Golgi disassembly results in cell-cycle arrest at the G2 stage, suggesting that accurate inheritance of the Golgi complex is monitored by a "Golgi mitotic checkpoint." Here, we discuss the mechanisms and regulation of the Golgi ribbon breakdown and briefly comment on how Golgi partitioning may inhibit G2/M transition.     

The Ubiquitin Ligase CBLC Maintains the Network Organization of the Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus plays a pivotal role in the sorting and post-translational modifications of secreted and membrane proteins. In mammalian cells, the Golgi is organized in stacks of cisternae linked together to form a network with a ribbon shape. Regulation of Golgi ribbon formation is poorly understood. Here we find in an image-based RNAi screen that depletion of the ubiquitin-ligase CBLC induces Golgi fragmentation. Depletions of the close homologues CBL and CBLB do not induce any visible defects. In CBLC-depleted cells, Golgi stacks appear relatively unperturbed at both the light and electron microscopy levels, suggesting that CBLC controls mostly network organization. CBLC partially localizes on Golgi membranes and this localization is enhanced after activation of the SRC kinase. Inhibition of SRC reverts CBLC depletion effects, suggesting interplay between the two. CBLC’s regulation of Golgi network requires its ubiquitin ligase activity. However, SRC levels are not significantly affected by CBLC, and CBLC knockdown does not phenocopy SRC activation, suggesting that CBLC’s action at the Golgi is not direct downregulation of SRC. Altogether, our results demonstrate a role of CBLC in regulating Golgi ribbon by antagonizing the SRC tyrosine kinase.     

p28, A Novel ERGIC/cis Golgi Protein, Required for Golgi Ribbon Formation

The mammalian Golgi apparatus consists of individual cisternae that are stacked in a polarized manner to form the compact zones of the Golgi. Several stacks are linked to form a ribbon via dynamic lateral bridges. The determinants required for maintaining the characteristic Golgi structure are incompletely understood. Here, we have characterized p28, a new γ-subfamily member of p24 membrane proteins. p28 localized to endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) and cis Golgi and accumulated in the ERGIC upon Brefeldin A treatment, typical for a protein cycling in the early secretory pathway. p28 interacted with a subset of p24 proteins. Its depletion by small interfering RNA (siRNA) led to fragmentation of the Golgi without affecting the overall organization of microtubules but considerably reducing the amount of acetylated tubulin. The distribution of COPI and tethers, including GM130, was not affected. At the ultrastructural level, the Golgi fragments appeared as mini-stacks with apparently unchanged cis - trans topology. Golgi fragmentation did not impair anterograde or retrograde traffic. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments revealed that silencing p28 prevents protein exchange between Golgi stacks during reassembly after Brefeldin A-induced Golgi breakdown. These results show that the formation of a Golgi ribbon requires the structural membrane protein p28 in addition to previously identified SNAREs, coat proteins and tethers.     

Specific organization of Golgi apparatus in plant cells

Microtubules, actin filaments, and Golgi apparatus are connected both directly and indirectly, but it is manifested differently depending on the cell organization and specialization, and these connections are considered in many original studies and reviews. In this review we would like to discuss what underlies differences in the structural organization of the Golgi apparatus in animal and plant cells: specific features of the microtubule cytoskeleton organization, the use of different cytoskeleton components for Golgi apparatus movement and maintenance of its integrity, or specific features of synthetic and secretory processes. We suppose that a dispersed state of the Golgi apparatus in higher plant cells cannot be explained only by specific features of the microtubule system organization and by the absence of centrosome as an active center of their organization because the Golgi apparatus is organized similarly in the cells of other organisms that possess the centrosome and centrosomal microtubules. One of the key factors determining the Golgi apparatus state in plant cells is the functional uniformity or functional specialization of stacks. The functional specialization does not suggest the joining of the stacks to form a ribbon; therefore, the disperse state of the Golgi apparatus needs to be supported, but it also can exist “by default”. We believe that the dispersed state of the Golgi apparatus in plants is supported, on one hand, by dynamic connections of the Golgi apparatus stacks with the actin filament system and, on the other hand, with the endoplasmic reticulum exit sites distributed throughout the endoplasmic reticulum.     

The coiled-coil membrane protein golgin-84 is a novel rab effector required for Golgi ribbon formation

Fragmentation of the mammalian Golgi apparatus during mitosis requires the phosphorylation of a specific subset of Golgi-associated proteins. We have used a biochemical approach to characterize these proteins and report here the identification of golgin-84 as a novel mitotic target. Using cryoelectron microscopy we could localize golgin-84 to the cis-Golgi network and found that it is enriched on tubules emanating from the lateral edges of, and often connecting, Golgi stacks. Golgin-84 binds to active rab1 but not cis-Golgi matrix proteins. Overexpression or depletion of golgin-84 results in fragmentation of the Golgi ribbon. Strikingly, the Golgi ribbon is converted into mini-stacks constituting only approximately 25% of the volume of a normal Golgi apparatus upon golgin-84 depletion. These mini-stacks are able to carry out protein transport, though with reduced efficiency compared with a normal Golgi apparatus. Our results suggest that golgin-84 plays a key role in the assembly and maintenance of the Golgi ribbon in mammalian cells.     

The Golgi ribbon structure facilitates anterograde transport of large cargoes

In mammalian cells, individual Golgi stacks fuse laterally to form the characteristic perinuclear ribbon structure. Yet the purpose of this remarkable structure has been an enigma. We report that breaking down the ribbon of mammalian cells strongly inhibits intra-Golgi transport of large cargoes without altering the rate of transport of smaller cargoes. In addition, insect cells that naturally harbor dispersed Golgi stacks have limited capacity to transport artificial oversized cargoes. These results imply that the ribbon structure is an essential requirement for transport of large cargoes in mammalian cells, and we suggest that this is because it enables the dilated rims of cisternae (containing the aggregates) to move across the stack as they transfer among adjacent stacks within the ribbon structure.     

Modular organization of the mammalian Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is essential for post-translational modifications and sorting of proteins in the secretory pathway. In addition, it further performs a broad range of specialized functions. This functional diversity is achieved by combining basic morphological modules of cisternae into higher ordered structures. Linking cisternae into stacks that are further connected through tubules into a continuous Golgi ribbon greatly increases its efficiency and expands its repertoire of functions. During cell division, the different modules of the Golgi are inherited by different mechanisms to maintain its functional and morphological composition.     

Mitosis controls the Golgi and the Golgi controls mitosis

In mammals, the Golgi complex is structured in the form of a continuous membranous system composed of up to 100 stacks connected by tubular bridges, the 'Golgi ribbon'. During mitosis, the Golgi undergoes extensive fragmentation through a multistage process that allows its correct partitioning and inheritance by daughter cells. Strikingly, this Golgi fragmentation is required not only for inheritance but also for mitotic entrance itself, since its block results in the arrest of the cell cycle in G2. This is called the 'Golgi mitotic checkpoint'. Recent studies have identified the severing of the ribbon into its constituent stacks during early G2 as the precise stage of Golgi fragmentation that controls mitotic entry. This opens new ways to elucidate the mechanism of the Golgi checkpoint.     

The biogenesis of the Golgi ribbon: the roles of membrane input from the ER and of GM130

The Golgi complex in mammalian cells forms a continuous ribbon of interconnected stacks of flat cisternae. We show here that this distinctive architecture reflects and requires the continuous input of membranes from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in the form of pleiomorphic ER-to-Golgi carriers (EGCs). An important step in the biogenesis of the Golgi ribbon is the complete incorporation of the EGCs into the stacks. This requires the Golgi-matrix protein GM130, which continuously cycles between the cis-Golgi compartments and the EGCs. On acquiring GM130, the EGCs undergo homotypic tethering and fusion, maturing into larger and more homogeneous membrane units that appear primed for incorporation into the Golgi stacks. In the absence of GM130, this process is impaired and the EGCs remain as distinct entities. This induces the accumulation of tubulovesicular membranes, the shortening of the cisternae, and the breakdown of the Golgi ribbon. Under these conditions, however, secretory cargo can still be delivered to the Golgi complex, although this occurs less efficiently, and apparently through transient and/or limited continuities between the EGCs and the Golgi cisternae.     

The Golgi apparatus in the endomembrane-rich gastric parietal cells exist as functional stable mini-stacks dispersed throughout the cytoplasm

Background information. Acid‐secreting gastric parietal cells are polarized epithelial cells that harbour highly abundant and specialized, H⁺, K⁺ ATPase‐containing, tubulovesicular membranes in the apical cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus has been implicated in the biogenesis of the tubulovesicular membranes; however, an unanswered question is how a typical Golgi organization could regulate normal membrane transport within the membrane‐dense cytoplasm of parietal cells. Results. Here, we demonstrate that the Golgi apparatus of parietal cells is not the typical juxta‐nuclear ribbon of stacks, but rather individual Golgi units are scattered throughout the cytoplasm. The Golgi membrane structures labelled with markers of both cis‐ and trans‐Golgi membrane, indicating the presence of intact Golgi stacks. The parietal cell Golgi stacks were closely aligned with the microtubule network and were shown to participate in both anterograde and retrograde transport pathways. Dispersed Golgi stacks were also observed in parietal cells from H⁺, K⁺ ATPase‐deficient mice that lack tubulovesicular membranes. Conclusions. These results indicate that the unusual organization of individual Golgi stacks dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of these terminally differentiated cells is likely to be a developmentally regulated event.