Reflections on a giant of brain science

Walter J. Freeman was a giant of the field of neuroscience whose visionary work contributed various experimental and theoretical breakthroughs to brain research in the past 60 years. He has pioneered a number of Electroencephalogram and Electrocorticogram tools and approaches that shaped the field, while “Freeman Neurodynamics” is a theoretical concept that is widely known, used, and respected among neuroscientists all over the world. His recent death is a profound loss to neuroscience and biomedical engineering. Many of his revolutionary ideas on brain dynamics have been ahead of their time by decades. We summarize his following groundbreaking achievements: (1) Mass Action in the Nervous System, from microscopic (single cell) recordings, through mesoscopic populations, to large-scale collective brain patterns underlying cognition; (2) Freeman–Kachalsky model of multi-scale, modular brain dynamics; (3) cinematic theory of cognitive dynamics; (4) phase transitions in cortical dynamics modeled with random graphs and quantum field theory; (5) philosophical aspects of intentionality, consciousness, and the unity of brain–mind–body. His work has been admired by many of his neuroscientist colleagues and followers. At the same time, his multidisciplinary approach combining advanced concepts of control theory and the mathematics of nonlinear systems and chaos, poses significant challenges to those who wish to thoroughly understand his message. The goal of this commemorative paper is to review key aspects of Freeman’s neurodynamics and to provide some handles to gain better understanding about Freeman’s extraordinary intellectual achievement.     

Temporal Morphology and Cap Formation in Acetabularia-Ii. Effects of Morphactin and Auxin

Afin d'apporter des arguments supplémentaires à?hypothese selon laquelle les rhythms circadiens sont impliqués dans la morphogénèse, des expériences ont été réalisées de manière a mettre en évidence la relation éventuelle de dépendance entre le moment (dans le cycle de 24 heures) où commence le traitement et ? effet (1) de la morphactine, un inhibiteur compétitif de ?'auxine et (2) de ? auxine (IAA).

Les résultats ont montré que (1) ? effet inhibiteur de la morphactine varie considérablement selon le moment auquel le traitement a commencé, plusieurs semaines avant ? expression morphogénétique; (2) le maximum d'inhibition change avec le stade de développement et le degré d'inhibition diminue avec le temps; (3) ?'IAA accélerè la formation du chapeau lorsque le traitement a commencé pendant la phase de croissance rapide des algues; ? effet depend du moment (du cycle de 24 heures) auquel il a commencé son effet diminue au cours du temps; (4) lorsque le traitement a commencé avec des algues plus petites que les precédéntes, il exerce un effet transitoirement inhibiteur qui dépend du moment du cycle de 24 heures auquel il a commence; (5) les fragments anucléés aussi répondent différentiellement à un traitement à ? IAA commencé a différents moments du cycle de 24 heures; ? effet est plus net quand des mRNA ont été accumulés; (6) ? effet de ? IAA n'est pas cumulé a celui d'une perturbation du cycle L-D; celui de la morphactine n'est pas modifyé ou est légérement amélioré par une perturbation du cycle L-D.

Mots clefs–Acetabularia, rhymes circadiens, morphogénèse, auxine, morphactine.

In order to support the hypothesis that circadian rhythms are implicated in cap formation, experiments were undertaken on the possible time-dependency of the effects of (a) a competitive inhibitor of auxins, morphactin and (b) of auxin (IAA). It was found that: (i) the inhibitory effect of morphactin varies dramatically with the time at which the several weeks' treatment was first begun; (ii) the maximum inhibition varies with development and decreases with time; (iii) IAA accelerates cap formation when the algae are submitted to IAA during the exponential growth phase; the effect is time dependent and decreases with time; (iv) IAA first applied on smaller algae has a transient inhibitory effect which is time dependent; (v) anucleate fragments also respond differentially to an IAA treatment begun at several times in the 24-hr cycle, most clearly when newly formed mRNA have been accumulated and (vi) the effect of iAA is not cumulative with that of a LD shift; that of morphactin is not, or only slightly, improved by a LD shift.     

Contribution of Brain Size to IQ and Educational Underperformance in Extremely Preterm Adolescents

Objectives

Extremely preterm (EP) survivors have smaller brains, lower IQ, and worse educational achievement than their term-born peers. The contribution of smaller brain size to the IQ and educational disadvantages of EP is unknown. This study aimed (i) to compare brain volumes from multiple brain tissues and structures between EP-born (<28weeks) and term-born (≥37weeks) control adolescents, (ii) to explore the relationships of brain tissue volumes with IQ and basic educational skills and whether this differed by group, and (iii) to explore how much total brain tissue volume explains the underperformance of EP adolescents compared with controls.

Methods

Longitudinal cohort study of 148 EP and 132 term controls born in Victoria, Australia in 1991-92. At age 18, magnetic resonance imaging-determined brain volumes of multiple tissues and structures were calculated. IQ and educational skills were measured using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) and the Wide Range Achievement Test(WRAT-4), respectively.

Results

Brain volumes were smaller in EP adolescents compared with controls (mean difference [95% confidence interval] of -5.9% [-8.0, -3.7%] for total brain tissue volume). The largest relative differences were noted in the thalamus and hippocampus. The EP group had lower IQs(-11.9 [-15.4, -8.5]), spelling(-8.0 [-11.5, -4.6]), math computation(-10.3 [-13.7, -6.9]) and word reading(-5.6 [-8.8, -2.4]) scores than controls; all p-values<0.001. Volumes of total brain tissue and other brain tissues and structures correlated positively with IQ and educational skills, a relationship that was similar for both the EP and controls. Total brain tissue volume explained between 20-40% of the IQ and educational outcome differences between EP and controls.

Conclusions

EP adolescents had smaller brain volumes, lower IQs and poorer educational performance than controls. Brain volumes of multiple tissues and structures are related to IQ and educational outcomes. Smaller total brain tissue volume is an important contributor to the cognitive and educational underperformance of adolescents born EP.     

Einführung in die „Geschichte der Menagerien von der Antike bis zum heutigen Tage“ von Gustave Loisel (1912)

The book ?Histoire des Ménageries de l’Antiquité à nos jours“, published in 1912 by Gustave Loisel (1864-1933), is a historical review of the evolution of zoos and an overview of their status in the early twentieth century. Loisel had been first involved in the reorganization of the Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris and realized for this purpose three missions to visit and to study zoological institutions in Europe and North America. His approach was as comprehensive as possible, full of rigor and prepared with care. He tried “first place to understand the organization and mode of operation of the various zoological institutions [he visited], to study ways to house and to feed the wild animals, and to note any specifics regarding the captive breeding of the rarest and most precious species”. Loisel was also gradually getting interested in the history and the development of all the zoological gardens he had visited, and about the origin and the evolution of zoos as a whole. The main result of all his research and visits is the “Histoire of menageries from antiquity to our days”, now one hundred years old. It is probably the dual approach, systematic modern study and historical research, which gave this compilation all his strength and singularity, even nowadays. The background, the development and the contents of this book are reviewed here.     

Lorenz Hiltner, a pioneer in rhizosphere microbial ecology and soil bacteriology research

Lorenz Hiltner is recognized as the first scientist to coin the term “rhizosphere” in 1904. His scientific career and achievements are summarized in this essay. Most of his research he performed in the Bavarian Agriculture–Botanical Institute (later named the “Bavarian Institute of Plant Growth and Plant Protection”) in Munich, where he was the director from 1902 to 1923. Beginning with intensive and thorough investigations on the germination and growth of different crop plants (legumes and non-legumes) Hiltner became convinced, that root exudates of different plants support the development of different bacterial communities. His definition of the “rhizosphere” in the year 1904 centered on the idea, that plant nutrition is considerably influenced by the microbial composition of the rhizosphere. Hiltner observed bacterial cells even inside the rhizodermis of healthy roots. In analogy with fungal root symbionts, Hiltner named the bacterial community that is closely associated with roots “bacteriorhiza.” In his rhizosphere concept, Hiltner also envisioned, that beneficial bacteria are not only attracted by the root exudates but that there are also “uninvited guests,” that adjust to the specific root exudates. Based on his observations he hypothesized that “the resistance of plants towards pathogenesis is dependent on the composition of the rhizosphere microflora.” He even had the idea, that the quality of plant products may be dependent on the composition of the root microflora. In addition to his scientific achievements, Hiltner was very dedicated to applied work. Together with F. Nobbe he had the first patent on Rhizobium inoculants (Nitragin). He continuously improved formulations and the effectivity of the Rhizobium preparations and he also initiated seed dressing with sublimate for plant protection of seedlings. Thus, Hiltner tightly linked breakthroughs in basic research to improved rhizosphere management practices. In addition, he wrote a pioneering monograph on plant protection for everybody’s practical use. His emphasis on understanding microbes in the context of their micro-habitat, the rhizosphere, made him a pioneer in microbial ecology. Even now, in the era of genome and postgenome analysis with our better understanding of plant nutrition and soil bacteriology, his ideas and contributions are as fresh as they were more than 100 years ago.     

Boucher de Perthes (1788–1868). Des rêves métaphysiques à l’invention de la préhistoire

The director of customs in Abbeville (Somme), Jacques Boucher de Perthes (1788-1868) had the project of renewing Christianity with metempsychosis. He had no scientific training but, as president of the Société d’émulation d’Abbeville, he was aware of what was being debated in the sciences. He integrated the scientific problem of fossil man into his religious faith. He thus discovered the Palaeolithic. His flagship book, the three volumes of Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities (1849, 1857, 1864), one of the founder works of Prehistory, succeeded in combining science and religion and this is what makes his study so interesting.     

Significance of freeze-drying in long term storage of date palm pollen

The authors attempt to determine the optimal conditions for maintaining long term viability of date palm pollen using a special method of freeze-drying. They have undertaken a systematic study of the viability over time of a sample of the same pollen stored and conserved under different conditions (freeze-drying, temperature, gaseous atmosphere and storage time).

The results are thoroughly analysed by means of different approaches of multiparametric modelisation. These numerical treatments permit us to:

Les auteurs ont déterminé, par une méthode particulière de lyophilisation, les conditions optimales permettant le maintien de la viabilité du pollen du palmier dattier (Phoenix dactylifera) à long terme. Une étude systématique a été réalisée sur des lots provenant d'un même échantillon de pollen conservé et stocké selon différentes conditions: (lyophilisation, température, atmosphère gazeuse et en fonction du temps de stockage).

Ils ont cherché à analyser de manière approfondie les résultats obtenus au moyen de plusieurs approches de modélisation multiparamétrique.

Ces traitements numériques ont permis:

1. demonstrate that such a phenomenon submits to the usual laws and can be modelled

2. propose a general approach for the study of the ageing of pollen with time and with respect to different conservation and storage conditions.

1. de démontrer qu'un tel phénomène obéit globalement à des lois statistiques simples, et qu'il est de ce fait modélisable

2. de proposer une approche plus générale du vieillissement des grains de pollen en fonction du temps et des conditions de conservation et de stockage.     

n-3 Fatty Acid Deficiency Increases Brain Protein Synthesis in the Free-Moving Adult Rat

Abstract: The autoradiographic method with l -[³⁵S]methionine was used to determine the effects of an n-3 fatty acid deficiency on brain protein synthesis. Brain protein synthesis was significantly increased (from 50 to 150%) in 45 of the 52 brain structures studied in n-3 fatty acid-deficient rats as compared with control animals. Biochemical analysis confirmed the increase in overall rate of protein synthesis in brain as a whole.     

A historic photomicrograph of a parasite (Trichomonas vaginalis)

Knowing that Alfred Donné was the discoverer of an important human parasite, and finding that he was also a pioneer of photomicrography, it occurred to me that his parasite might well have become a subject of his photography. It was a simple matter to confirm that this was indeed the case. The parasite he discovered was Trichomonas vaginalis; and, in collaboration with Foucault, Donné made a photomicrograph showing several protozoan parasites lying among vaginal epithelial cells. His publication of an engraved image of the photomicrograph in 1845, was a landmark in the history of photography and microbiology.     

Temporal Morphology and Cap Formation in Acetabulars-I. Light-Dark Cycle Perturbations

La formation du chapeau, qui constitue un événement morphogénétique de la plus grande importance chez ?'algue Acetabularïa, est influénce par une perturbation unique du cycle lumière-obscurité, done aussi, vraisemblablement, des rythmes circadiens. La perturbation a lieu plusieurs semaines avant ?expression morphogénétique. ? effet est plus marqué sur la formation du chapeau que sur la croissance. Son importance dépend du moment du nyctémère où la perturbation intervient.

?effet dépend du stade de développement de ?'algue: lorsque le transfert d' un régime L-D à un autre a lieu pendant la phase de grande croissance, la formation du chapeau est retardée, mais ? importance de ? effet s'atténue avec le temps. Lorsque le transfert a lieu pendant la phase terminale de croissance (lente), la formation du chapeau est accélérée de façon transitoire. Lorsqu'il a lieu alors que les algues ont presque atteint leur taille finale, il est sans effet. Ces résultats présentent des analogies avec le photopériodisme.

Mots clefs–Acetabularia, rythmes circadiens, morphogénèse, photopériodisme.

Cap formation, a major developmental process in the alga Acetabularia, is influenced by a single perturbation of the entraining light-dark schedule and thus, presumably, of the circadian rhythms. This perturbation is brought about several weeks before cap formation, the most conspicuous expression of morphogenesis in Acetabularia. The effect is more pronounced on cap formation than on growth. It varies in importance with the circadian time at which the perturbation was brought about.

The effect is dependent on the developmental state of the alga: transfer carried out during the logarithmic phase of growth produces a delay whose importance decreases with time. When carried out during the phase of slow terminal growth, the transfer induces a transistory acceleration of cap formation. When the algae approach their final length, no effect is elicited. Photoperiodism seems to be involved.     

Breeding biology of Frances's Sparrowhawk Accipiter francesii in a lowland rainforest of northeastern Madagascar

Lily-Arison, R.de R. 2000. Breeding biology of Frances's Sparrowhawk Accipiter francesii in a lowland rainforest of northeastem Madagascar. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 332–335.

Frances's Sparrowhawks Accipiter fmncesii were studied during the breeding seasons 1994 and 1995 on Masoala Peninsula of northeastern Madagascar. Breeding coincides with the dry season, nest building in October, egg laying in November, hatching in December and fledging in January (beginning of the wet season). All but one of 10 pairs built new nests in 1995 and the mean distance of nest site from 1994 and 1995 nests was 105± 100 m (n = 6, ranging from 0 to 250m). Nests in primary forest were incubated for 79% of the observation time by females, 3% by males and eggs were unattended for 18% of the observation time. On a numerical basis the diet was composed of lizards (56%) and birds (23%), making up more than 79% of the identified prey items. A total of 33 eggs was laid in 13 nests (average clutch size 2.5). In 13 breeding attempts 29 (88%) hatched and all of those hatchlings fledged. Of the 14 My-documented breeding attempts 2.1 young fledged per breeding attempt and overall nesting success was 93%.

L'Épervier de France Accipiter francesii a été étudié pendant la saison de reproduction en 1994 et 1995 dans la Presqu'Ile Masoala, au partie Nord-Est de Madagascar. La saison de reproduction de cette espkce coincide avec la saison sèche: la construction du nid en Octobre, la ponte en Novembre, I'élosion en Déembre et l'envol du poussin en Janvier (début de la saison pluviale). Tous, sauf une des 10 paires ont construit des nouveaw nids en 1995 et la distance moyenne de I'endroit du nid de I'anné 1994 et 1995 est de 105 + 100 m (n = 6, variant de 0 à 250m). Dans la for[ebar]t primaire, les oeufs ont éeté incubés par la femelle pendant 79% du temps d'observation, 3% par le mile et non incubés pendant 18% du temps. Les proies sont principalement composées de lkzards (56%) et oiseaux (23%), atteignant plus de 79% des proies identifiés. 33 oeufs ont été pondus dans 13 nids (en moyenne 2.5 oeufs par nid). Pour ces 13 nids, 29 oeufs (88%) ont été éclos et tous ces poussins (100%) sont capables de voler. Sur 14 nids observés, 2.1 poussins par nid s'envolent et le tam de succés est de 93%.     

Methode rapide et simple pour determiner le degre de fermentation du raffinose par les levures

Sommaire L'auteur décrit une méthode rapide et simple pour la détermination de la fermentation du raffinose par les levures, en mettant en rapport l'hydrolise du trisaccharide (qui précède toujours la fermentation), par la méthode auxanographique, avec la fermentation du glucose et du galactose (monosaccharides formant partie de la molécule du raffinose). Les avantages de cette méthodes sont: 1) Rapidité et simplicité. 2) Economie des produits utilisés: le mélibiose et le raffinose sont employés dans les auxanogrammes en quantités minimales.     

A comment on Farwell (2012): brain fingerprinting: a comprehensive tutorial review of detection of concealed information with event-related brain potentials

In a recent issue of Cognitive Neurodynamics Farwell (Cogn Neurodyn 6:115–154, 2012) published a comprehensive tutorial review of the use of Event Related Brain Potentials (ERP) in the detection of concealed information. Farwell’s review covered much of his own work employing his “brain fingerprinting” technology. All his work showed a 100 % accuracy rate in detecting concealed information. We argue in this comment that Farwell (Cogn Neurodyn 6:115–154, 2012) is misleading and misrepresents the scientific status of brain fingerprinting technology.     

Rearing of a coleopterous predator,Trogossita japonica (Col.: Trogossitidae), on artificial diets

Artificial diets for a coleopterous predator of pine bark and wood borers,Trogossita japonica Reitter (Col.: Trogossitidae) were studied. Diets composed of silkworm pupa-powder, dry yeasts, sucrose, peptone, squid liver oil, agar and distilled water supported larval development. The size of diet-reared adults was smaller than that in the control but they mated and oviposited normally when maintained on prey insects. An aseptic rearing method for the larvae of predator, that required a single diet change, was devised.

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Résumé Nous avons élaboré et évalué quatre milieux semi-synthétiques pour l'élevage deTrogossita japonica Reitter, prédateur d'insectes sous-corticaux et xylophages des pins. Les larves ont été nourries avec des milieux composés de poudre de chrysalide du ver à soie, levure de bière séchée, sucrose, peptone, huile de foie de seiche, agar et eau distillée. Les adultes obtenus ont été plus petits que ceux du lot témoin, mais ils se sont accouplés et ont pondu normalement quand ils ont été nourris avec des proies-insectes. Une méthode d'élevage des larves sur milieu aseptique a été élaborée, laquelle ne nécessite qu'un changement de milieu nutritionnel au cours du développement larvaire du prédateur.

     

Étude quantitative du parasitisme réalisé parTrichomalopsis peregrina dans les nids d'hiver d'Euproctis chrysorrhoea en chenaie

Les interactions h?te-parasito?de ont été abordées dans le cas du systèmeTrichomalopsis peregrina G. (Pteromalidae) et son h?te grégaireEuproctis chrysorrhoea L. (Lymantriidae), au cours de la phase diapausante des chenilles dans les nids d'hiver tissés par ce ravageur. Un échantillon de 1 432 nids d'hiver a été récolté dans 8 peuplements de chênes dans la région toulousaine durant l'hiver 1988. Le volume du nid a été utilisé comme estimateur du nombre de chenillesh?tes dans les nids et la réponse du parasito?de a été comparée à celle prévue par la théorie de la stratégie optimale de recherche. Les principaux résultats sont les suivants:

2-D DIGE as a quantitative tool for investigating the HUPO Brain Proteome Project mouse series

Brain development and aging is a complex process involving proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Elucidating proteome changes in these processes can help to understand the mechanisms of brain development and maintenance as well as neurodegenerative diseases. The research reported here is a contribution to the HUPO Brain Proteome Project mouse pilot study. Whole, frozen C57BL/6J mouse brain comprising three different developmental stages (embryonic day 16, postnatal day 7, and postnatal days 54-58) were processed by using 2-D DIGE. A total of 1999 spots were matched between all gels. Of these, 206 spots were differentially expressed between the different stages: 122 spots were highest in intensity in embryonic stage E16, 26 highest in the juvenile group P7 and 58 spots highest in P56, the adult stage. The results show a pattern of temporal expression. Based on the expression patterns we tentatively suggest that proteins involved in the establishment of primary structures in the brain are expressed highest in the embryonic mouse. Proteins involved in the development of the brain are expressed highest in the juvenile phase and proteins that make utilization of the brain possible by delivering energy are expressed highest in the adult mice.     

Theodore H. Bullock: pioneer of integrative and comparative neurobiology

Theodore H. Bullock (1905–2005) was a pioneer of integrative and comparative neurobiology and one of the founders of neuroethology. His work—distinguished by the tremendous number of different research themes and animal taxa studied—provided the basis for a comprehensive analysis of brain evolution. Among his major achievements are: one of the first physiological analyses of rhythmic central pattern generators; the first simultaneous recording from both the presynaptic and postsynaptic region of a chemical synapse; the demonstration of intercellular communication through graded potentials; and the discovery of two novel sensory organs formed by infrared receptors in pit vipers and electroreceptors in electric fish. He was also one of the first who applied computational tools to the analysis of complex neural signals and to perform a comparative analysis of cognitive events. His two-volume treatise “Structure and function in the nervous system of invertebrates” (with G. Adrian Horridge) remains the most comprehensive, authoritative review of this topic ever written. In addition to his research merits, his legacy is particularly based on his cosmopolitan way of thinking and acting, his large, worldwide school of students, and his committed advocacy for comparative and systems-oriented neurobiology.     

Hommage à rené delépine à l'occasion de son départ à la retraite

A tribute to René Delépine on the occasion of his retirement. The career of René Delépine is reviewed on the occasion of his retirement. When he was a student, a meeting with Jean Feldmann led to a lifelong inclination towards phycology. Eventually appointed to the position of assistant professor at the University of Paris-VI (University Pierre-et-Marie-Curie), René Delépine worked and published primarily on the taxonomy of antarctic and subantarctic marine algae but he was also interested in seaweed aquaculture and utilizations. After organizing the national colloque ValVA (Valorisation des végétaux aquatiques), he became increasingly involved in the commercial application of seaweeds. His main activity, however, remained university teaching for which he was always enthusiastic, especially for teaching in the field and on the subject of the utilizations of algae. A list of his publications is given at the end of this article.     

Experimentation, communication and patronage: a perspective on René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (1683-1757)

Historians of science have neglected the French Academician Réaumur, whose work is emblematic of a modern conception of science that joins together technology, science, and society. Réaumur practised rigorous experimentation on organisms, and uncovered industrial and utilitarian secrets which he communicated to the public. His patronage was essential in boosting the generation of young naturalists of the 1740s who advanced further the experimental approach to the study of nature. For Réaumur, his work was not separate from his mission to disclose and communicate previously restricted knowledge for the benefits of science and society.