Participation of cob(I) alamin in the reaction catalyzed by methionine synthase from Escherichia coli: a steady-state and rapid reaction kinetic analysis

The kinetic mechanism of the reaction catalyzed by cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase from Escherichia coli K12 has been investigated by both steady-state and pre-steady-state kinetic analyses. The reaction catalyzed by methionine synthase involves the transfer of a methyl group from methyltetrahydrofolate to homocysteine to generate tetrahydrofolate and methionine. The postulated reaction mechanism invokes an initial transfer of the methyl group to the enzyme to generate enzyme-bound methylcobalamin and tetrahydrofolate. Enzyme-bound methylcobalamin then donates its methyl group to homocysteine to generate methionine and cob(I)alamin. The key questions that were addressed in this study were the following: (1) Does the reaction involve a sequential or ping-pong mechanism? (2) Is enzyme-bound cob(I)alamin a kinetically competent intermediate? (3) If the reaction does involve a sequential mechanism, what is the nature of the "free" enzyme to which the substrates bind; i.e., is the prosthetic group in the cob(I)alamin or methylcobalamin state? Both the steady-state and rapid reaction studies were conducted at 25 degrees C under anaerobic conditions. Initial velocity analysis under steady-state conditions revealed a family of parallel lines suggesting either a ping-pong mechanism or an ordered sequential mechanism. Steady-state product inhibition studies provided evidence for an ordered sequential mechanism in which the first substrate to bind is methyltetrahydrofolate and the last product to be released is tetrahydrofolate. Pre-steady-state kinetic studies were then conducted to determine the rate constants for the various reactions. Enzyme-bound cob(I)alamin was shown to react very rapidly with methyltetrahydrofolate (with an observed rate constant of 250 s-1 versus a turnover number under maximal velocity conditions of 19 s-1).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Acid-Precipitated M Protein Compared with a Column-Eluted M Protein Preparation from Type 12, Group A Streptococci

An M protein preparation of group A streptococci, precipitated with 0.03 m sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.0) was compared with a column-eluted M protein preparation. Absorption spectra and methyl pentose content were similar in both preparations. Acrylamide gel electrophoresis patterns were different. Gel diffusion demonstrated two lines of fusion in the preparations. More antigens could be demonstrated in both preparations by using immunoelectrophoresis. Neither the pH 4 precipitate nor the column-eluted preparation appeared to be a pure M protein preparation.     

Quantitation of rate enhancements attained by the binding of cobalamin to methionine synthase

Cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase (MetH) catalyzes the methylation of homocysteine using methyltetrahydrofolate as the methyl donor. The cobalamin cofactor serves as an intermediate carrier of the methyl group from methyltetrahydrofolate to homocysteine. In the two half-reactions that comprise turnover for MetH, the cobalamin is alternatively methylated by methyltetrahydrofolate and demethylated by homocysteine to form methionine. Upon binding to the protein, the usual dimethylbenzimidazole ligand is replaced by the imidazole side chain of His759 [Drennan, C. L., Huang, S., Drummond, J. T., Matthews, R. G., and Ludwig, M. L. (1994) Science 266, 1669-1674]. Despite the ligand replacement that accompanies binding of cobalamin to the holo-MetH protein, a MetH(2-649) fragment of methionine synthase that contains the regions that bind homocysteine and methyltetrahydrofolate utilizes exogenously supplied cobalamin in methyl transfer reactions akin to those of the catalytic cycle. However, the interactions of MetH(2-649) with endogenous cobalamin are first order in cobalamin, while the half-reactions catalyzed by the holoenzyme are zero order in cobalamin, so rate constants for reactions of bound and exogenous cobalamins cannot be compared. In this paper, we investigate the catalytic rate enhancements generated by binding cobalamin to MetH after dividing the protein in half and reacting MetH(2-649) with a second fragment, MetH(649-1227), that harbors the cobalamin cofactor. The second-order rate constant for demethylation of methylcobalamin by Hcy is elevated 60-fold and that for methylation of cob(I)alamin is elevated 120-fold. Thus, binding of cobalamin to MetH is essential for efficient catalysis.     

The ionic mechanisms associated with the excitatory response of kainate, L-glutamate, quisqualate, ibotenate, AMPA and methyltetrahydrofolate on leech Retzius cells

Intracellular recordings were made from Retzius cells from segmental ganglia of the leech, Hirudo medicinalis. The ionic mechanisms of the following compounds were examined: L-glutamate, ibotenate, quisqualate, AMPA, kainate, methyltetrahydrofolate and carbachol. All these compounds depolarise and excite Retzius cells. In sodium-free Ringer, the responses to L-glutamate, kainate, ibotenate and AMPA were greatly reduced, the response to quisqualate was reduced, the response to methyltetrahydrofolate was normal while the response to carbachol was abolished. In sodium-free high calcium Ringer the responses to L-glutamate, ibotenate and carbachol were absent, the responses to quisqualate and AMPA greatly reduced, the responses to methyltetrahydrofolate and kainate were normal. The methyltetrahydrofolate and kainate responses in sodium-free high calcium Ringer were greatly reduced on addition of cobalt. All the responses are associated with an increase in conductance, the increase being the largest in the case of kainate. It is concluded that the response to L-glutamate, ibotenate and carbachol are dependent on sodium, the responses to quisqualate and AMPA are mainly sodium dependent, possibly with a small calcium component. The kainate response in normal Ringer is largely sodium dependent but in sodium-free Ringer calcium can completely substitute for sodium. The methyltetrahydrofolate response appears to be sodium independent but at least partly calcium dependent. These studies provide further evidence that L-glutamate and ibotenate act on a common receptor on leech Retzius cells while kainate acts on a separate receptor which can activate a calcium ionophore. It is probable that methyltetrahydrofolate acts on a different ionophore system to kainate. N-Methyl-D-aspartate has no agonist activity on any of these receptors.     

Synthesis of acetyl coenzyme A from carbon monoxide, methyltetrahydrofolate, and coenzyme A by enzymes from Clostridium thermoaceticum

Two purified fractions from Clostridium thermoaceticum are shown to catalyze the following reaction: CO + CH3THF + CoA ATP leads to CH3COCoA + THF. The methyltetrahydrofolate (CH3THF) gives rise to the methyl group of the acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) and the carbon monoxide (CO) and CoA to its carboxyl thio ester group. The role of ATP is unknown. One of the protein fractions (F2) is a methyltransferase, whereas the other fraction (F3) contains CO dehydrogenase and a methyl acceptor which is postulated to be a corrinoid enzyme. The methyltransferase catalyzes the transfer of the methyl group to the methyl acceptor, and the CO is converted to a formyl derivative by the CO dehydrogenase. By a mechanism that is as yet unknown, the formyl derivative in combination with CoA and the methyl of the methyl acceptor are converted to acetyl-CoA. It is also shown that fraction F3 catalyzes the reversible exchange of 14C from [1-14C]acetyl-CoA into 14CO and that ATP is required, but not the methyltransferase. It is proposed that these reactions are part of the mechanism which enables certain autotrophic bacteria to grow on CO. It is postulated that CH3THF is synthesized from CO and tetrahydrofolate which then, as described above, is converted to acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA then serves as a precursor in other anabolic reactions. A similar autotropic pathway may occur in bacteria which grow on carbon dioxide and hydrogen.     

The synthesis of acetyl-CoA by Clostridium thermoaceticum from carbon dioxide,hydrogen, coenzyme A and methyltetrahydrofolate

It has been demonstrated that enzymes from Clostridium thermoaceticum catalyze the following reaction in which Fd is ferredoxin and CH3THF is methyltetrahydrofolate. (for formula see text). The system involves hydrogenase, CO dehydrogenase, a methyltransferase, a corrinoid enzyme and other unknown components. Hydrogenase catalyzes the reduction of ferredoxin by H2; CO dehydrogenase then uses the reduced ferredoxin to reduce CO2 to a one-carbon intermediate that combines with CoASH and with a methyl group originating from CH3THF to form acetyl-CoA. It is proposed that these reactions are part of the mechanism which enables certain acetogenic autotrophic bacteria to grow on CO2 and H2.     

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthesis from methyltetrahydrofolate, CO, and coenzyme A by enzymes purified from Clostridium thermoaceticum: attainment of in vivo rates and identification of rate-limiting steps.

Many anaerobic bacteria fix CO2 via the acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) (Wood) pathway. Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH), a corrinoid/iron-sulfur protein (C/Fe-SP), methyltransferase (MeTr), and an electron transfer protein such as ferredoxin II play pivotal roles in the conversion of methyltetrahydrofolate (CH3-H4folate), CO, and CoA to acetyl-CoA. In the study reported here, our goals were (i) to optimize the method for determining the activity of the synthesis of acetyl-CoA, (ii) to evaluate how closely the rate of synthesis of acetyl-CoA by purified enzymes approaches the rate at which whole cells synthesize acetate, and (iii) to determine which steps limit the rate of acetyl-CoA synthesis. In this study, CODH, MeTr, C/Fe-SP, and ferredoxin were purified from Clostridium thermoaceticum to apparent homogeneity. We optimized conditions for studying the synthesis of acetyl-CoA and found that when the reaction is dependent upon MeTr, the rate is 5.3 mumol min-1 mg-1 of MeTr. This rate is approximately 10-fold higher than that reported previously and is as fast as that predicted on the basis of the rate of in vivo acetate synthesis. When the reaction is dependent upon CODH, the rate of acetyl-CoA synthesis is approximately 0.82 mumol min-1 mg-1, approximately 10-fold higher than that observed previously; however, it is still lower than the rate of in vivo acetate synthesis. It appears that at least two steps in the overall synthesis of acetyl-CoA from CH3-H4folate, CO, and CoA can be partially rate limiting. At optimal conditions of low pH (approximately 5.8) and low ionic strength, the rate-limiting step involves methylation of CODH by the methylated C/Fe-SP. At higher pH values and/or higher ionic strength, transfer of the methyl group of CH3-H4folate to the C/Fe-SP becomes rate limiting.     

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MR) deficiency: thermolability of residual MR activity, methionine synthase activity, and methylcobalamin levels in cultured fibroblasts.

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MR) deficiency is the most common inborn error of folate metabolism with more than two dozen patients described. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from severe neurological deterioration and early death to asymptomatic adults. Some patients with a severe deficiency of MR have been shown to have thermolabile reductase at 55 degrees C. Since methyltetrahydrofolate, the product of MR, is a methyl donor for methylcobalamin (MeCbl), the cofactor for methionine synthase (MS), we have looked at MeCbl accumulation and MS activity in fibroblasts from 15 patients with MR deficiency. Thermolabile MR was most often but not always seen in later onset disease. MeCbl levels were often lowest in the patients with early onset disease. All but two patients had levels of methionine synthase within the control range.     

Immobilization of lipase from Candida cylindraceae and its use in the synthesis of menthol esters by transesterification.

Lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) from Candida cylindraceae has been immobilized by the cellulose-titanium chloride method, and on EP-400 polyethylene, with and without glutaraldehyde crosslinking, to give active preparations when assessed by their ability to catalyse the hydrolysis of tributyrin. In both cases, the use of glutaraldehyde crosslinking was shown to improve the stability of the preparations for repeated use. The lipase immobilized on EP-400 polyethylene was found to be effective in transesterification using tributyrin or triacetin as acyl donors with l-menthol as acceptor. The production of methyl butanoate and of methyl acetate using this immobilized preparation was in each case enhanced in the presence of Amberlite IR 47 Anion exchange resin (OH form).     

An approach to address Candida rugosa lipase regioselectivity in the acylation reactions of trytilated glucosides

Candida rugosa lipase crude preparations (CRL) catalyse the regioselective acylation of methyl 6-O-trytil beta-d-glucopyranoside in organic solvents, using vinyl acetate as acyl donor. The ratio of the two products formed, namely methyl 2-O acetyl 6-O-trytil beta-d-glucopyranoside and methyl 3-O acetyl 6-O-trytil beta-d-glucopyranoside was found to be markedly affected by the nature of the reaction medium. In hydrophobic solvents values up to 80% of the monoacetylated product in position C-3 were obtained compared to less than 30% in solvents with low hydrophobicity. Computational studies were carried out to simulate the interactions between methyl 6-O-trytil beta-d-glucopyranoside and both CRL and the solvents, in order to rationalize the experimental results.     

DEF sensitive esterases in homogenates of larval and adult Helicoverpa zea, Spodoptera frugiperda, and Agrotis ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Homogenates of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagle), and Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) third instars and adults contained S,S,S-tri-n-butyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF)-sensitive enzymes that hydrolyzed trans-cypermethrin and two known esterase substrates, alpha-naphthyl acetate and beta-naphthyl acetate. Except for H. zea with alpha-naphthyl acetate, larval preparations were more active than those of adults, and no marked sex differences were apparent. The hydrolysis of trans-cypermethrin in noctuid preparations were inhibited by DEF, with pI50 values ranging from 4.5 to 6.7. DEF was a potent inhibitor of the degradation of general carboxylesterase substrates alpha-naphthyl acetate and beta-naphthyl acetate in some cases. Electrophoretic studies confirmed the presence in noctuid gut homogenates of one or more DEF-sensitive esterases that hydrolyzed alpha-naphthyl acetate and beta-naphthyl acetate and that were completely inhibited by dichtorvos.     

Bioalkylation of dibenz[a,b]anthracene in rat liver cytosol

Previous studies by other investigators have established that L-region methyl derivatives of dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA) were more carcinogenic than the parent hydrocarbon. The bioalkylation of DBA was investigated by incubating the hydrocarbon with rat liver cytosol fortified with S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) for 1 h at 37 degrees C in air. The reaction was stopped by the addition of cold acetone and the mixture extracted with ethyl acetate and washed with water. The organic phase was evaporated and the residue dissolved in methylene chloride for analysis by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy GC/MS. Products were found that were indistinguishable from 7-methyl-DBA and 7,14-dimethyl-DBA, 7-hydroxymethyl-DBA, 7-hydroxymethyl-14-methyl-DBA, and 7,14-dihydroxymethyl-DBA. The results suggest that unsubstituted carcinogenic hydrocarbons are preprocarcinogens that react with SAM in liver cytosol preparations, to form alkyl substituted procarcinogens, which are more potent than the corresponding preprocarcinogens.     

Cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase: probing the role of the axial base in catalysis of methyl transfer between methyltetrahydrofolate and exogenous cob(I)alamin or cob(I)inamide

Cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase (MetH) catalyzes the transfer of methyl groups between methyltetrahydrofolate (CH(3)-H(4)folate) and homocysteine, with the enzyme-bound cobalamin serving as an intermediary in the methyl transfers. An MetH fragment comprising residues 2-649 contains modules that bind and activate CH(3)-H(4)folate and homocysteine and catalyze methyl transfers to and from exogenous cobalamin. Comparison of the rates of reaction of cobalamin, which contains a dimethylbenzimidazole nucleotide coordinated to the cobalt in the lower axial position, and cobinamide, which lacks the dimethylbenzimidazole nucleotide, allows assessment of the degree of stabilization the dimethylbenzimidazole base provides for methyl transfer between CH(3)-H(4)folate bound to MetH(2-649) and exogenous cob(I)alamin. When the reactions of cob(I)alamin or cob(I)inamide with CH(3)-H(4)folate are compared, the observed second-order rate constants are 2.7-fold faster for cob(I)alamin; in the reverse direction, methylcobinamide reacts 35-fold faster than methylcobalamin with enzyme-bound tetrahydrofolate. These measurements can be used to estimate the influence of the dimethylbenzimidazole ligand on both the thermodynamics and kinetics of methyl transfer between methyltetrahydrofolate and cob(I)alamin or cob(I)inamide. The free energy change for methyl transfer from CH(3)-H(4)folate to cob(I)alamin is 2.8 kcal more favorable than that for methyl transfer to cob(I)inamide. Dimethylbenzimidazole contributes approximately 0.6 kcal/mol of stabilization for the forward reaction and approximately 2.2 kcal/mol of destabilization for the reverse reaction. Binding of methylcobalamin to full-length methionine synthase is accompanied by ligand substitution, and switching between "base-on" and "base-off" states of the cofactor has been demonstrated [Bandarian, V., et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 8156-8163]. The present results disfavor a major role for such switching in catalysis of methyl transfer, and are consistent with the hypothesis that the primary role of the ligand triad in methionine synthase is controlling the distribution of enzyme conformations during catalysis.     

The energy conserving methyltetrahydromethanopterin:coenzyme M methyltransferase complex from methanogenic archaea: function of the subunit MtrH.

In methanogenic archaea the transfer of the methyl group of N5-methyltetrahydromethanopterin to coenzyme M is coupled with energy conservation. The reaction is catalyzed by a membrane associated multienzyme complex composed of eight different subunits MtrA-H. The 23 kDa subunit MtrA harbors a corrinoid prosthetic group which is methylated and demethylated in the catalytic cycle. We report here that the 34 kDa subunit MtrH catalyzes the methylation reaction. MtrH was purified and shown to exhibit methyltetrahydromethanopterin:cob(I)alamin methyltransferase activity. Sequence comparison revealed similarity of MtrH with MetH from Escherichia coli and AcsE from Clostridium thermoaceticum: both enzymes exhibit methyltetrahydrofolate:cob(I)alamin methyltransferase activity.     

Levels of enzymes involved in the synthesis of acetate from CO2 in Clostridium thermoautotrophicum

The acetogenic bacterium Clostridium thermoautotrophicum, grown on methanol, glucose, or CO2-H2, contained high levels of corrinoids, formate dehydrogenase, tetrahydrofolate enzymes, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, and hydrogenase. Cell-free extracts catalyzed pyruvate-dependent formation of acetate from methyltetrahydrofolate. These results suggest that C. thermoautotrophicum synthesizes acetate from CO2 via a formate-tetrahydrofolate-corrinoid pathway.     

Identification of the rhaA, rhaB and rhaD gene products from Escherichia coli K-12

Washed cells of Peptostreptococcus products (strain Marburg), which were incubated in the presence of CO/CO2/N2 (50%/17%/33%; 200 kPa) catalyzed the synthesis of acetate from carbon monoxide. The rate of acetate formation from CO was stimulated more than threefold by the addition of sodium (10 mM); potassium did not effect acetate synthesis. The degree of stimulation was dependent on the sodium concentration; the dependence followed simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The apparent Km for sodium was determined to be about 2 mmol/l. Sodium also stimulated acetate synthesis from H2 plus CO2. In the absence of added sodium the formation of formate as an intermediate in methyl group synthesis was stimulated. It is suggested that the sodium dependent reaction(s) is one (or more) of the reactions involved in methyl group synthesis from CO2.     

Comparison of Acetate Turnover in Methanogenic and Sulfate-Reducing Sediments by Radiolabeling and Stable Isotope Labeling and by Use of Specific Inhibitors: Evidence for Isotopic Exchange

Acetate turnover in the methanogenic freshwater anoxic sediments of Lake Vechten, The Netherlands, and in anoxic sediments from the Tamar Estuary, United Kingdom, and the Grosser Jasmunder Bodden, Germany, the latter two dominated by sulfate reduction, was determined. Stable isotopes and radioisotopes, inhibitors (chloroform and fluoroacetate), and methane flux were used to provide independent estimates of acetate turnover. Pore water acetate pool sizes were determined by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector, and stable isotope-labeled acetate was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The appearance of acetates with a different isotope labeling pattern from that initially added demonstrated that isotopic exchange occurred during methanogenic acetate metabolism. The predominant exchange processes were (i) D-H exchange in the methyl group and (ii) (sup13)C-(sup12)C exchange at the carboxyl carbon. These exchanges are most probably caused by the activity of the enzyme complex carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and subsequent methyl group dehydrogenation by tetrahydromethanopterine or a related enzyme. The methyl carbon was not subject to exchange during transformation to methane, and hence acetate with the methyl carbon labeled will provide the most reliable estimate of acetate turnover to methane. Acetate turnover rate estimates with these labels were consistent with independent estimates of acetate turnover (acetate accumulation after inhibition and methane flux). Turnover rates from either radioisotope- or stable isotope-labeled methyl carbon isotopes are, however, dependent on accurate determination of the acetate pool size. The additions of large amounts of stable isotope-labeled acetate elevate the acetate pool size, stimulating acetate consumption and causing deviation from steady-state kinetics. This can, however, be overcome by the application of a non-steady-state model. Isotopic exchange in sediments dominated by sulfate reduction was minimal.     

Corrinoid-Dependent Methyl Transfer Reactions Are Involved in Methanol and 3,4-Dimethoxybenzoate Metabolism by Sporomusa ovata

Washed and air-oxidized proteins from Sporomusa ovata cleaved the C-O bond of methanol or methoxyaromatics and transferred the methyl to dl-tetrahydrofolate. The reactions strictly required a reductive activation by titanium citrate, catalytic amounts of ATP, and the addition of dl-tetrahydrofolate. Methylcorrinoid-containing proteins carried the methanol methyl, which was transferred to dl-tetrahydrofolate at a specific rate of 120 nmol h mg of protein. Tetrahydrofolate methylation diminished after the addition of 1-iodopropane or when the methyl donor methanol was replaced by 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate. However, whole Sporomusa cells utilize the methoxyl groups of 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate as a carbon source by a sequential O demethylation to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoate and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate. The in vitro O demethylation of 3,4-[4-methoxyl-C]dimethoxybenzoate proceeded via two distinct corrinoid-containing proteins to form 5-[C]methyltetrahydrofolate at a specific rate of 200 nmol h mg of protein. Proteins from 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate-grown cells efficiently used methoxybenzoates with vicinal substituents only, but they were unable to activate methanol. These results emphasized that specific enzymes are involved in methanol activation as well as in the activation of various methoxybenzoates and that similar corrinoid-dependent methyl transfer pathways are employed in 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate formation from these substrates. Methyl-tetrahydrofolate could be demethylated by a distinct methyl transferase. That enzyme activity was present in washed and air-oxidized cell extracts from methanol-grown cells and from 3,4-dimethoxybenzoate-grown cells. It used cob(I)alamin as the methyl acceptor in vitro, which was methylated at a rate of 48 nmol min mg of protein even when ATP was omitted from the assay mixture. This methyl-cob(III)alamin formation made possible a spectrophotometric quantification of the preceding methyl transfers from methanol or methoxybenzoates to dl-tetrahydrofolate.     

Characterization of a three-component vanillate O-demethylase from Moorella thermoacetica

The Moorella thermoacetica aromatic O-demethylase was characterized as an inducible three-component system with similarity to the methanogenic methanol, methylamine, and methanethiol methyltransferases and to the O-demethylase system from Acetobacterium dehalogenans. MtvB catalyzes methyl transfer from a phenylmethylether to the cobalt center of MtvC, a corrinoid protein. MtvA catalyzes transmethylation from MtvC to tetrahydrofolate, forming methyltetrahydrofolate. Cobalamin can substitute for MtvC.