Iconicity in English and Spanish and Its Relation to Lexical Category and Age of Acquisition

Signed languages exhibit iconicity (resemblance between form and meaning) across their vocabulary, and many non-Indo-European spoken languages feature sizable classes of iconic words known as ideophones. In comparison, Indo-European languages like English and Spanish are believed to be arbitrary outside of a small number of onomatopoeic words. In three experiments with English and two with Spanish, we asked native speakers to rate the iconicity of ~600 words from the English and Spanish MacArthur-Bates Communicative Developmental Inventories. We found that iconicity in the words of both languages varied in a theoretically meaningful way with lexical category. In both languages, adjectives were rated as more iconic than nouns and function words, and corresponding to typological differences between English and Spanish in verb semantics, English verbs were rated as relatively iconic compared to Spanish verbs. We also found that both languages exhibited a negative relationship between iconicity ratings and age of acquisition. Words learned earlier tended to be more iconic, suggesting that iconicity in early vocabulary may aid word learning. Altogether these findings show that iconicity is a graded quality that pervades vocabularies of even the most “arbitrary” spoken languages. The findings provide compelling evidence that iconicity is an important property of all languages, signed and spoken, including Indo-European languages.     

How do we use language? Shared patterns in the frequency of word use across 17 world languages

We present data from 17 languages on the frequency with which a common set of words is used in everyday language. The languages are drawn from six language families representing 65 per cent of the world's 7000 languages. Our data were collected from linguistic corpora that record frequencies of use for the 200 meanings in the widely used Swadesh fundamental vocabulary. Our interest is to assess evidence for shared patterns of language use around the world, and for the relationship of language use to rates of lexical replacement, defined as the replacement of a word by a new unrelated or non-cognate word. Frequencies of use for words in the Swadesh list range from just a few per million words of speech to 191 000 or more. The average inter-correlation among languages in the frequency of use across the 200 words is 0.73 (p < 0.0001). The first principal component of these data accounts for 70 per cent of the variance in frequency of use. Elsewhere, we have shown that frequently used words in the Indo-European languages tend to be more conserved, and that this relationship holds separately for different parts of speech. A regression model combining the principal factor loadings derived from the worldwide sample along with their part of speech predicts 46 per cent of the variance in the rates of lexical replacement in the Indo-European languages. This suggests that Indo-European lexical replacement rates might be broadly representative of worldwide rates of change. Evidence for this speculation comes from using the same factor loadings and part-of-speech categories to predict a word's position in a list of 110 words ranked from slowest to most rapidly evolving among 14 of the world's language families. This regression model accounts for 30 per cent of the variance. Our results point to a remarkable regularity in the way that human speakers use language, and hint that the words for a shared set of meanings have been slowly evolving and others more rapidly evolving throughout human history.     

Sound Symbolism in the Languages of Australia

The notion that linguistic forms and meanings are related only by convention and not by any direct relationship between sounds and semantic concepts is a foundational principle of modern linguistics. Though the principle generally holds across the lexicon, systematic exceptions have been identified. These “sound symbolic” forms have been identified in lexical items and linguistic processes in many individual languages. This paper examines sound symbolism in the languages of Australia. We conduct a statistical investigation of the evidence for several common patterns of sound symbolism, using data from a sample of 120 languages. The patterns examined here include the association of meanings denoting “smallness” or “nearness” with front vowels or palatal consonants, and the association of meanings denoting “largeness” or “distance” with back vowels or velar consonants. Our results provide evidence for the expected associations of vowels and consonants with meanings of “smallness” and “proximity” in Australian languages. However, the patterns uncovered in this region are more complicated than predicted. Several sound-meaning relationships are only significant for segments in prominent positions in the word, and the prevailing mapping between vowel quality and magnitude meaning cannot be characterized by a simple link between gradients of magnitude and vowel F2, contrary to the claims of previous studies.     

Time from the viewpoint of Cantor's and post-Cantorian set theory--a contribution to the founding of chronobiology

There is given a survey of the evolution of the idea of time in the mankind's thinking from the beginning down to the term's application in sciences and in the philosophy. As one can point out from some languages, living as well as extincted ones, the words for time are derived etymologically from several roots or stems, respectively, which mostly represent different meanings. But by increasing abstraction in all civilized languages, the process of stripping the different words of their concrete accompaniments led up to a narrow of the diverse meanings which converged towards the common understanding of time in modern sciences. Nevertheless time is no unequivocal term as one can show by linguistic and mathematical analysis. Especially by means of the theory of differential equations and the set theory, the chimerical nature of time is demonstrable, so that time is only an abstraction of abstractions.     

The Altyerre Story—‘Suffering Badly by Translation’

In culture‐contact situations, it is commonplace for words to be borrowed from other unrelated vernaculars, for their pronunciations to be changed, and their meanings modified to fit new contexts. The Arandic word altyerre is a rather extreme example of this, and at the end of the nineteenth century, the ‘translation’ of the related word Alcheringa as ‘dream‐times’ sparked a debate that, in some forms, continues to this day. In this article, I discuss some of the reasons why this particular word struck such a controversial chord. I give an updated semantic perspective on the word altyerre , drawing on evidence from Arandic languages and from other languages in Central Australia. Then I examine some of the consequences of both religious and secular interpretations of altyerre and show how the popularisation of this word and its translations has impacted on its meanings in current usage.     

Some remarks on the Ural-Altaic substrate in Old Canary and Etruscan languages as a contribution to linguistic neolithic anthropology in Eurasia and North Africa

The suffixes of the nominal declension in the Old Canary and Etruscan languages are very similar to the corresponding elements of the Sumerian and Ural-Altaic tongues. Also many words of funeral and generally cultic provenance are derived from common roots in these languages. So one may assume that the Indoeuropean tongues of (West) Europe overlaid a common substratum of Ural-Altaic type which was alive still in the time of Megalithicum.     

单个汉字阅读过程中的双线路机制

因为汉字具有与拼音字母语言不同的方形书写结构以及字型映射规则,已有很多研究关注这两种语言是否存在着不同的阅读机制,但还在争论中.本研究通过功能磁共振技术,采用汉字和英文两种语言的真字(词),假字(词)以及非字(词)作为刺激材料来进一步研究此问题.研究结果显示:在高频字(词)条件下,汉字和英文具有相似的阅读机制,但在阅读假字(词)时,它们的阅读机制差异很大.具体表现为英文假词激活了左脑缘上回,而汉字假词激活了左脑额中回.研究结果说明:1)汉英双语者可能采用了两种不同的双线路机制来读取汉字和英文单词.2)汉英双语者在阅读英文假词时,须借助缘上回脑区进行字型转换.而在阅读汉字假字时,则需通过额中回进行笔画分析.     

Language and imagery: effects of language modality

Across spoken languages, properties of wordforms (e.g. the sounds in the word hammer) do not generally evoke mental images associated to meanings. However, across signed languages, many signforms readily evoke mental images (e.g. the sign HAMMER resembles the motion involved in hammering). Here we assess the relationship between language and imagery, comparing the performance of English speakers and British sign language (BSL) signers in meaning similarity judgement tasks. In experiment 1, we found that BSL signers used these imagistic properties in making meaning similarity judgements, in contrast with English speakers. In experiment 2, we found that English speakers behaved more like BSL signers when asked to develop mental images for the words before performing the same task. These findings show that language differences can bias users to attend more to those aspects of the world encoded in their language than to those that are not; and that language modality (spoken versus signed) can affect the degree to which imagery is involved in language.     

A word of a natural language has 2.718 different meanings or slightly more

The capacity of lexical decision-making in the brain conforms to the indefiniteness latent in natural languages. The average number of different meanings per word of a natural language is measured to be 2.805 +/- 0.005 irrespective of whether the language is Chinese, English or Japanese. If one can almost perfectly comprehend words and sentences written in a natural language in a context-dependent manner, the average number of different meanings per word would reduce to e (= 2.718281828459...), the base of natural or Napierian logarithms.     

Linguistic diversity of natural UNESCO world heritage sites: bridging the gap between nature and culture

UNESCO Natural World Heritage Sites (WHSs) are some of the most important biophysical and geological places on Earth, yet nearly half are endangered or face considerable risks from ever-expanding human impacts. Often sites have people living within or nearby who speak different languages, many of which are unique and similarly endangered. Here we examine the co-occurrence of Natural WHSs with languages, as a key index of cultural diversity, to identify locations for integrative conservation opportunities aimed at protecting human and non-human diversity. Our analysis reveals many WHSs with high linguistic diversity, as well as endangered sites with associated indigenous languages and endangered languages that intersect Natural WHSs. Results identify Australia as the continent which has the greatest number of Natural WHSs, many co-occurring with highly endangered languages. Engaging speakers of indigenous languages often can help maintain nature, while efforts to conserve Natural WHSs can help preserve settings that enabled indigenous languages and cultures to emerge and persist.     

Response by H. H. Pattee to Jon Umerez’s Paper: “Where Does Pattee’s “How Does a Molecule Become a Message?” Belong in the History of Biosemiotics?”

Umerez’s analysis made me aware of the fundamental differences in the culture of physics and molecular biology and the culture of semiotics from which the new field of biosemiotics arose. These cultures also view histories differently. Considering the evolutionary span and the many hierarchical levels of organization that their models must cover, models at different levels will require different observables and different meanings for common words, like symbol, interpretation, and language. These models as well as their histories should be viewed as complementary rather than competitive. The relation of genetic language and human language is the central issue. They are separated by 4 billion years and require entirely different models. Nevertheless, these languages have in common a unique unlimited expressive power that allows open-ended evolution and creative thought. Understanding the nature of this expressive power and how it arises remains a basic unsolved problem of biosemiotics.     

Birds of a feather speak together: Understanding the different dialects of animals can help to decipher their communication

As humans, many animal species that communicate via vocalization show a wide range of accents and dialects driven by environmental and social factors.

All human languages come with dialects not just as a result of geographical distance between different tribes or groups but also as a part of their local culture and heritage. “Dialect or the speech of the people is capable of expressing whatever the people are,” said Sterling K Brown, an American actor. A Southerner in the USA, a Sicilian in Italy or a Bavarian in Germany would be easily recognizable as such, but also often stresses his or her dialect to signal where they come from geographically and culturally.

… many animal species from multiple taxa have evolved forms of vocal communication that are subject to geographic, genetic, environmental, behavioural and social variations.

Dialect and accents are not unique to humans: Many animal species from multiple taxa have evolved forms of vocal communication that are subject to geographic, genetic, environmental, behavioral, and social variations. One more or less universal factor behind the variety of animal dialects is that some convergence or conservation of vocalization can confer selective or competitive advantages.One area of confusion lies in the use of terms such as dialect and accent, which have more clearly defined meanings in the context of human languages. Here, accents refer to the way the same words are spoken, varying in acoustic frequency or intonation but not in enunciation or form. Accents are thus a subset of dialects, which also bring variations in vocabulary, grammatical structure and idiom within a common underlying language.     

An error limit for the evolution of language

On the evolutionary trajectory that led to human language there must have been a transition from a fairly limited to an essentially unlimited communication system. The structure of modern human languages reveals at least two steps that are required for such a transition: in all languages (i) a small number of phonemes are used to generate a large number of words; and (ii) a large number of words are used to a produce an unlimited number of sentences. The first (and simpler) step is the topic of the current paper. We study the evolution of communication in the presence of errors and show that this limits the number of objects (or concepts) that can be described by a simple communication system. The evolutionary optimum is achieved by using only a small number of signals to describe a few valuable concepts. Adding more signals does not increase the fitness of a language. This represents an error limit for the evolution of communication. We show that this error limit can be overcome by combining signals (phonemes) into words. The transition from an analogue to a digital system was a necessary step toward the evolution of human language.     

Rank Diversity of Languages: Generic Behavior in Computational Linguistics

Statistical studies of languages have focused on the rank-frequency distribution of words. Instead, we introduce here a measure of how word ranks change in time and call this distribution rank diversity. We calculate this diversity for books published in six European languages since 1800, and find that it follows a universal lognormal distribution. Based on the mean and standard deviation associated with the lognormal distribution, we define three different word regimes of languages: “heads” consist of words which almost do not change their rank in time, “bodies” are words of general use, while “tails” are comprised by context-specific words and vary their rank considerably in time. The heads and bodies reflect the size of language cores identified by linguists for basic communication. We propose a Gaussian random walk model which reproduces the rank variation of words in time and thus the diversity. Rank diversity of words can be understood as the result of random variations in rank, where the size of the variation depends on the rank itself. We find that the core size is similar for all languages studied.     

Explaining the Linguistic Diversity of Sahul Using Population Models

The region of the ancient Sahul continent (present day Australia and New Guinea, and surrounding islands) is home to extreme linguistic diversity. Even apart from the huge Austronesian language family, which spread into the area after the breakup of the Sahul continent in the Holocene, there are hundreds of languages from many apparently unrelated families. On each of the subcontinents, the generally accepted classification recognizes one large, widespread family and a number of unrelatable smaller families. If these language families are related to each other, it is at a depth which is inaccessible to standard linguistic methods. We have inferred the history of structural characteristics of these languages under an admixture model, using a Bayesian algorithm originally developed to discover populations on the basis of recombining genetic markers. This analysis identifies 10 ancestral language populations, some of which can be identified with clearly defined phylogenetic groups. The results also show traces of early dispersals, including hints at ancient connections between Australian languages and some Papuan groups (long hypothesized, never before demonstrated). Systematic language contact effects between members of big phylogenetic groups are also detected, which can in some cases be identified with a diffusional or substrate signal. Most interestingly, however, there remains striking evidence of a phylogenetic signal, with many languages showing negligible amounts of admixture.     

Mating patterns amongst Siberian reindeer herders: inferences from mtDNA and Y-chromosomal analyses

The Evenks and Evens, who speak closely related languages belonging to the Northern Tungusic branch of the Tungusic family, are nomadic reindeer herders and hunters. They are spread over an immense territory in northeastern Siberia, and consequently different subgroups are in contact with diverse peoples speaking Samoyedic, Turkic, Mongolic, Chukotka-Kamchatkan, and Yukaghir languages. Nevertheless, the languages and culture of the Evenks and Evens are similar enough for them to have been classified as a single ethnic group in the past. This linguistic and cultural similarity indicates that they may have spread over their current area of habitation relatively recently, and thus may be closely related genetically. On the other hand, the great distances that separate individual groups of Evens and Evenks from each other might have led to preferential mating with geographic neighbors rather than with linguistically related peoples. In this study, we assess the correlation between linguistic and genetic relationship in three different subgroups of Evenks and Evens, respectively, via mtDNA and Y-chromosomal analyses. The results show that there is some evidence of a common origin based on shared mtDNA lineages and relatively similar Y-haplogroup frequencies amongst most of the Evenk and Even subgroups. However, there is little sharing of Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes, indicating that males within Evenk and Even subgroups have remained relatively isolated. There is further evidence of some female admixture in different Even subgroups with their respective geographic neighbors. However, the Tungusic groups, and especially the Evenks, show signs of genetic drift, making inferences about their prehistory difficult.     

Morpheme Matching Based Text Tokenization for a Scarce Resourced Language

Text tokenization is a fundamental pre-processing step for almost all the information processing applications. This task is nontrivial for the scarce resourced languages such as Urdu, as there is inconsistent use of space between words. In this paper a morpheme matching based approach has been proposed for Urdu text tokenization, along with some other algorithms to solve the additional issues of boundary detection of compound words, affixation, reduplication, names and abbreviations. This study resulted into 97.28% precision, 93.71% recall, and 95.46% F1-measure; while tokenizing a corpus of 57000 words by using a morpheme list with 6400 entries.     

A molecular semiotic view of biology. Interferon and 'homeokine' as symbols.

A term "homeokine" was introduced as a generic name covering cytokines and protein hormones which serve the purpose of intercellular communication within the animal body for homeostasis and ontogenetic development. The homeokine system, in its complex way of functioning, seems to be analogous to another communication system, human language. Individual homeokine molecules are likened to words; they have meanings and are viewed as symbols, representing those conditions or events inside and outside the body which are relevant to homeostasis. Extending this view, any protein and other molecule can be considered to take on the character of sign, when integrated into a purposive system of higher hierarchy, because the molecule then represents a meaning relative to the system as a whole that is lacking in the isolated state. Living systems with their biological macromolecules as semantic units are constructed upon the principle of double articulation, just like human languages with words as the semantic units. The structure and function of a molecule (of protein and any other substance) are associated with each other, with various degrees of arbitrariness, as are the expression and the content of a sign in general. Namely the activities or the sign functions of biological molecules are determined by the organized system they belong to, and not vice versa.     

Towards theoretical formalisms

This article deals with the relationship between vocabulary (total number of distinct oligomers or “words”) and text-length (total number of oligomers or “words”) for a coding DNA sequence (CDS). For natural human languages, Heaps established a mathematical formula known as Heaps’ law, which relates vocabulary to text-length. Our analysis shows that Heaps’ law fails to model this relationship for CDSs. Here we develop a mathematical model to establish the relationship between the number of type of words (vocabulary) and the number of words sampled (text-length) for CDSs, when non-overlapping nucleotide strings with the same length are treated as words. We use tangent-hyperbolic function, which captures the saturation property of vocabulary. Based on the parameters of the model, we formulate a mathematical equation, known as “equation of word organization”, whose parameters essentially indicate that nucleotide organization of coding sequences are different from one another. We also compare the word organization of CDSs with the random word distribution and conclude that a CDS is neither similar to a natural human language nor to a random one. Moreover, these sequences have their unique nucleotide organization and it is completely structured for specific biological functioning.     

Historical linguistics as a sequence optimization problem: the evolution and biogeography of Uto‐Aztecan languages

Language origins and diversification are vital for mapping human history. Traditionally, the reconstruction of language trees has been based on cognate forms among related languages, with ancestral protolanguages inferred by individual investigators. Disagreement among competing authorities is typically extensive, without empirical grounds for resolving alternative hypotheses. Here, we apply analytical methods derived from DNA sequence optimization algorithms to Uto‐Aztecan languages, treating words as sequences of sounds. Our analysis yields novel relationships and suggests a resolution to current conflicts about the Proto‐Uto‐Aztecan homeland. The techniques used for Uto‐Aztecan are applicable to written and unwritten languages, and should enable more empirically robust hypotheses of language relationships, language histories, and linguistic evolution.