Emotional and social behaviors elicited by electrical stimulation of the insula in the macaque monkey

Evidence from a large number of brain imaging studies has shown that, in humans, the insula, and especially its anterior part, is involved in emotions and emotion recognition. Typically, however, these studies revealed that, besides the insula, a variety of other cortical and subcortical areas are also active. Brain imaging studies are correlative in nature, and, as such, they cannot give indications about the necessary contribution of the different centers involved in emotions. In the present study, we aimed to define more clearly the role of the insula in emotional and social behavior of the monkey by stimulating it electrically. Using this technique, one may determine whether direct activation of the insula can produce specific emotional or social behaviors and exactly which parts of this structure are responsible for these behaviors. The results showed that two emotional behaviors, a basic one (disgust) and a social one (affiliative state), were easily elicited by electrical stimulation of specific parts of the insula. Both behaviors were characterized by specific motor and vegetative responses and by a dramatic change in the monkey's responsiveness to external stimuli.     

Cerebral palsy in a macaque monkey

Magnetic resonance imaging was used to document brain lesions symptomatic of cerebral palsy in the macaque monkey exhibiting poor motor control and periodic episodes of ocular nystagmus and convulsive twitching. Neuroanatomic deficits most likely resulted from hemorrhage or ischemic infarction at or near the time of birth. Extreme maternal dependency and retarded behavioral development were documented at 3 and 12 months of age. Both social and motor behavior improved significantly when observed at 30 months of age after therapy.     

Parvalbumin interneuron inhibition onto anterior insula neurons projecting to the basolateral amygdala drives aversive taste memory retrieval

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Color signals in area MT of the macaque monkey

The relationship between the neural processing of color and motion information has been a contentious issue in visual neuroscience. We examined this relationship directly by measuring neural responses to isoluminant S cone signals in extrastriate area MT of the macaque monkey. S cone stimuli produced robust, direction-selective responses at most recording sites, indicating that color signals are present in MT. While these responses were unequivocal, S cone contrast sensitivity was, on average, 1.0-1.3 log units lower than luminance contrast sensitivity. The presence of S cone responses and the relative sensitivity of MT neurons to S cone and luminance signals agree with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measurements in human MT+. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that color signals in MT influence behavior in speed judgment tasks.     

The obese brain athlete: self-regulation of the anterior insula in adiposity

The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is involved in emotional processes and gustatory functions which can be examined by imaging techniques. Such imaging studies showed increased activation in the insula in response to food stimuli as well as a differential activation in lean and obese people. Additionally, studies investigating lean subjects established the voluntary regulation of the insula by a real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging-brain computer interface (rtfMRI-BCI) approach. In this exploratory study, 11 lean and 10 obese healthy, male participants were investigated in a rtfMRI-BCI protocol. During the training sessions, all obese participants were able to regulate the activity of the AIC voluntarily, while four lean participants were not able to regulate at all. In successful regulators, functional connectivity during regulation vs. relaxation between the AIC and all other regions of the brain was determined by a seed voxel approach. Lean in comparison to obese regulators showed stronger connectivity in cingular and temporal cortices during regulation. We conclude, that obese people possess an improved capacity to self-regulate the anterior insula, a brain system tightly related to bodily awareness and gustatory functions.     

Magnetic resonance imaging of neuronal connections in the macaque monkey

Recently, an MRI-detectable, neuronal tract-tracing method in living animals was introduced that exploits the anterograde transport of manganese (Mn2+). We present the results of experiments simultaneously tracing manganese chloride and wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP) to evaluate the specificity of the former by tracing the neuronal connections of the basal ganglia of the monkey. Mn2+ and WGA-HRP yielded remarkably similar and highly specific projection patterns. By showing the sequential transport of Mn2+ from striatum to pallidum-substantia nigra and then to thalamus, we demonstrated MRI visualization of transport across at least one synapse in the CNS of the primate. Transsynaptic tract tracing in living primates will allow chronic studies of development and plasticity and provide valuable anatomical information for fMRI and electrophysiological experiments in primates.     

Neuroanatomical correlates of suicide in psychosis: the possible role of von Economo neurons

Suicide is the most important incident in psychiatric disorders. Psychological pain and empathy to pain involves a neural network that involves the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the anterior insula (AI). At the neuronal level, little is known about how complex emotions such as shame, guilt, self-derogation and social isolation, all of which feature suicidal behavior, are represented in the brain. Based on the observation that the ACC and the AI contain a large spindle-shaped cell type, referred to as von Economo neuron (VEN), which has dramatically increased in density during human evolution, and on growing evidence that VENs play a role in the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism, psychosis and dementia, we examined the density of VENs in the ACC of suicide victims. The density of VENs was determined using cresyl violet-stained sections of the ACC of 39 individuals with psychosis (20 cases with schizophrenia, 19 with bipolar disorder). Nine subjects had died from suicide. Twenty specimen were available from the right, 19 from the left ACC. The density of VENs was significantly greater in the ACC of suicide victims with psychotic disorders compared with psychotic individuals who died from other causes. This effect was restricted to the right ACC. VEN density in the ACC seems to be increased in suicide victims with psychosis. This finding may support the assumption that VEN have a special role in emotion processing and self-evaluation, including negative self-appraisal.     

Quantitative histochemistry of mucosubstance in tracheal epithelium of the macaque monkey

Experimentally applied irritants and chronic respiratory diseases appear to alter the amount and composition of secretory cell product in surface epithelium and submucosal glands of pulmonary airways. Previous methods used to quantify these changes have been very time-consuming or have not measured the same components of the airway wall. The present study describes a rapid, reproducible, and standardized automated method for quantifying secretory products. The tracheas from eight macaque monkeys were fixed with glutaraldehyde-paraformaldehyde, embedded in glycol methacrylate, serially sectioned at 2 microns, and histochemically stained to demonstrate neutral, sialylated, and sulfated mucosubstances in the cartilaginous, intercartilaginous, and membranous regions of both proximal and distal trachea. Volume densities were determined using an image analyzer and are expressed as volume of stained mucosubstance per unit surface area of epithelial basal lamina. Comparison of the automated method to manual point counting and evaluation of internal variance showed that the automated method had a twelve-fold increase in efficiency with no significant differences in measurements. After weighting the values of each region according to their anatomical contribution, the total secretory product (TSP) for the entire trachea was determined. Periodate-reactive acid material predominated (73%) in luminal surface epithelium, and neutral material predominated (78%) in submucosal glands. Surface epithelium contained 66% of the TSP. The greater contribution by surface epithelium and predominance of acid mucins there resulted in a TSP from the trachea that consisted of 59% acid material (most of which was sulfated) and 41% neutral material. The method proved to be a valid, reproducible, and rapid technique for evaluating variability in abundance of mucosubstances within airway epithelium.     

Connections of neurons in the lumbar ventral horn of spinal cord are altered after long-standing limb loss in a macaque monkey

Explanations for the massive reorganization in primary motor cortex, M1, after limb amputation typically focus on processes that occur in cortex. Few have investigated whether changes in more peripheral parts of the pathway might also play a role in the reorganization. In the present study, we examined the integrity and connectivity of the spinal cord motoneurons in a macaque monkey (Macaca mulatta) that lost a hindlimb as a result of accidental injury more than 3.5 years earlier. To label motoneurons, multiple small injections of a neuroanatomical tracer were placed in the muscles of the hip just adjacent to the stump of the amputated leg, and in matched locations in the opposite side for control purposes. Injections of a second tracer were made in the intact foot. In the ventral horn that related to the intact hindlimb, motoneurons labeled by the hip injections were concentrated rostral and ventromedial to those labeled by the foot injections. Hip injections on the side of the amputation labeled neurons that were located well beyond the normal territory for motoneurons related to the hip and into the zone normally occupied by neurons projecting to the foot. Labeled motoneurons innervating the intact limb were significantly larger than neurons on the side of the amputation (x = 2410 and 2061 microm(2), respectively). The findings suggest that many neurons survived the long-standing amputation, and made new connections with remaining intact muscles. These new patterns of connectivity likely contribute to the reorganization of motor cortex in amputees, and perhaps to abnormal behaviors like those reported by human amputees.     

Type V collagen in splenic reticular fibers of the macaque monkey

The distribution of type I, III and V collagens in the monkey spleen was examined by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy, and compared with that of reticular fibers revealed by a silver impregnation method. Type I collagen was localized on reticular fibers in the white pulps and on coarse reticular fibers in the splenic cords. Type III collagen was localized on the reticular fibers in the white pulps, and on the coarse reticular fibers and a limited number of fine reticular fibers, in the splenic cords. The anti-type V collagen antibody reacted with annular reticular fibers around the splenic sinuses, as well as with the reticular fibers in the white pulps and with the coarse and fine reticular fibers in the splenic cords. Thus, the distribution pattern of fibers that reacted with the anti-type V collagen antibody was very similar to that of the reticular fibers revealed by the silver impregnation method. Electron-microscopically, the fine reticular fibers in the splenic cords were composed of collagen fibrils, 30-50 nm in diameter, and amorphous substances. They were covered by reticular cell processes. By immunoperoxidase labeling with the anti-type V collagen antibody, electron-dense reaction products were found over the collagen fibrils with a banding pattern. These results indicate that type V collagen is an indispensable component of the reticular fibers.     

Audiovisual integration in macaque face patch neurons

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S cone contributions to the magnocellular visual pathway in macaque monkey

The magnocellular visual pathway is believed to receive input from long (L) and middle (M), but not short (S), wavelength-sensitive cones. Recording from neurons in magnocellular layers of lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in macaque monkeys, we found that magnocellular neurons were unequivocally responsive to S cone-isolating stimuli. A quantitative analysis suggests that S cones provided about 10% of the input to these cells, on average, while L:M ratios were far more variable. S cone signals influenced responses with the same sign as L and M cone inputs (i.e., no color opponency). Magnocellular afferent recordings following inactivation of primary visual cortex demonstrated that S cone signals were feedforward in nature and did not arise from cortical feedback to LGN     

Expression of prokineticin 2 and its receptor in the macaque monkey brain

Prokineticin 2 (PK2) has been indicated as an output signaling molecule for the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) circadian clock. Most of these studies were performed with nocturnal animals, particularly mice and rats. In the current study, the PK2 and its receptor, PKR2, was cloned from a species of diurnal macaque monkey. The macaque monkey PK2 and PKR2 were found to be highly homologous to that of other mammalian species. The mRNA expression of PK2 and PKR2 in the macaque brain was examined by in situ hybridization. The expression patterns of PK2 and PKR2 in the macaque brain were found to be quite similar to that of the mouse brain. Particularly, PK2 mRNA was shown to oscillate in the SCN of the macaque brain in the same phase and with similar amplitude with that of nocturnal mouse brain. PKR2 expression was also detected in known primary SCN targets, including the midline thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei. In addition, we detected the expression of PKR2 mRNA in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) of both macaque and mouse brains. As a likely SCN to dorsal raphe projection has previously been indicated, the expression of PKR2 in the raphe nuclei of both macaque and mouse brain signifies a possible role of DR as a previously unrecognized primary SCN projection target.     

Anatomical evidence for the posterior boundary of area 2 in the macaque monkey

This study examined the architectonic organization of the macaque's primary somatosensory cortex near the tip of the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), using myelin and Nissl stains plus immunohistochemical labeling with the SMI-32 antibody. The surface cortex between the IPS and central sulcus (overlapping area 2) was distinguished from surrounding cortex (areas 1 post-central dimple and cortex immediately anterior to the tip of the IPS. Physiological mappings verified that the and 5) by relatively light SMI-32 immunoreactivity. This distinguishing architectonic feature was most evident between the architectonic transition correlated with a change in receptive field properties, consistent with their marking the boundary between areas 2 and 5. These results suggest that area 2 occupies surface cortex anterior to the IPS, but not within the IPS.     

Biomechanical analysis of vertical climbing in the spider monkey and the Japanese macaque

Climbing is one of the most important components of primate locomotor modes. We previously reported that the kinesiological characteristics of vertical climbing by the spider monkey and Japanese macaque are clearly different, based on their kinetics and kinematics. In this study, a more detailed analysis using inverse dynamics was conducted to estimate the biomechanical characteristics of vertical climbing in the spider monkey and Japanese macaque. One of the main findings was the difference in forelimb use by the two species. The results of a joint moment analysis and estimates of muscular force indicate that the spider monkey uses its forelimbs to keep the body close to the substrate, rather than to generate propulsion. The forelimb of the Japanese macaque, on the other hand, likely contributes more to propulsion. This supports the idea that "forelimb-hindlimb differentiation" is promoted in the spider monkey. The estimated muscular force also suggests that the spider monkey type of climbing could develop the hindlimb extensor muscles, which are important in bipedal posture and walking. As a result, we conclude that the spider monkey type of climbing could be functionally preadaptive for human bipedalism. This type of climbing would develop the hip and knee extensor muscles, and result in more extended lower limb joints, a more erect trunk posture, and more functionally differentiated fore- and hindlimbs, all of which are important characteristics of human bipedalism.     

Anatomical evidence for the posterior boundary of area 2 in the macaque monkey

This study examined the architectonic organization of the macaque's primary somatosensory cortex near the tip of the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), using myelin and Nissl stains plus immunohistochemical labeling with the SMI-32 antibody. The surface cortex between the IPS and central sulcus (overlapping area 2) was distinguished from surrounding cortex (areas 1 and 5) by relatively light SMI-32 immunoreactivity. This distinguishing architectonic feature was most evident between the post-central dimple and cortex immediately anterior to the tip of the IPS. Physiological mappings verified that the architectonic transition correlated with a change in receptive field properties, consistent with their marking the boundary between areas 2 and 5. These results suggest that area 2 occupies surface cortex anterior to the IPS, but not within the IPS.     

Populations of behavior-reactive neurons in the monkey neostriatum

Comparative analysis of the unit activity of the monkey putamen during multistage behavior showed that neurons of the putamen are active during all the behavioral actions. It was established that the number of the behavior-related neurons changes considerably less than number of neurons which reorganize their activity at the time. Reorganization of unit activity in the putamen is considered as reflecting the efferent code which controls behavior, and the degree of reorganization--as a measure of change of this code in relation to organization of ongoing behavioral action. It has been discovered that the change in the number of the active neurons at various steps of behavior and reorganization of their activity occurs independently. It may be related to two main afferent systems of striatum: ascending from rhe brain stem, and corticofugal which brings differentiated information to the neuronal net of striatum from various parts of the cortex.     

Medial temporal lobe projections to the retrosplenial cortex of the macaque monkey

The projections to the retrosplenial cortex (areas 29 and 30) from the hippocampal formation, the entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and amygdala were examined in two species of macaque monkey by tracking the anterograde transport of amino acids. Hippocampal projections arose from the subiculum and presubiculum to terminate principally in area 29. Label was found in layer I and layer III(IV), the former seemingly reflecting both fibers of passage and termination. While the rostral subiculum mainly projects to the ventral retrosplenial cortex, mid and caudal levels of the subiculum have denser projections to both the caudal and dorsal retrosplenial cortex. Appreciable projections to dorsal area 30 [layer III(IV)] were only seen following an extensive injection involving both the caudal subiculum and presubiculum. This same case provided the only example of a light projection from the hippocampal formation to posterior cingulate area 23 (layer III). Anterograde label from the entorhinal cortex injections was typically concentrated in layer I of 29a-c, though the very caudal entorhinal cortex appeared to provide more widespread retrosplenial projections. In this study, neither the amygdala nor the perirhinal cortex were found to have appreciable projections to the retrosplenial cortex, although injections in either medial temporal region revealed efferent fibers that pass very close or even within this cortical area. Finally, light projections to area 30V, which is adjacent to the calcarine sulcus, were seen in those cases with rostral subiculum and entorhinal injections. The results reveal a particular affinity between the hippocampal formation and the retrosplenial cortex, and so distinguish areas 29 and 30 from area 23 within the posterior cingulate region. The findings also suggest further functional differences within retrosplenial subregions as area 29 received the large majority of efferents from the subiculum. ? 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Cortical integration in the visual system of the macaque monkey: large-scale morphological differences in the pyramidal neurons in the occipital, parietal and temporal lobes.

Layer III pyramidal neurons were injected with Lucifer yellow in tangential cortical slices taken from the inferior temporal cortex (area TE) and the superior temporal polysensory (STP) area of the macaque monkey. Basal dendritic field areas of layer III pyramidal neurons in area STP are significantly larger, and their dendritic arborizations more complex, than those of cells in area TE. Moreover, the dendritic fields of layer III pyramidal neurons in both STP and TE are many times larger and more complex than those in areas forming 'lower' stages in cortical visual processing, such as the first (V1), second (V2), fourth (V4) and middle temporal (MT) visual areas. By combining data on spine density with those of Sholl analyses, we were able to estimate the average number of spines in the basal dendritic field of layer III pyramidal neurons in each area. These calculations revealed a 13-fold difference in the number of spines in the basal dendritic field between areas STP and V1 in animals of similar age. The large differences in complexity of the same kind of neuron in different visual areas go against arguments for isopotentiality of different cortical regions and provide a basis that allows pyramidal neurons in temporal areas TE and STP to integrate more inputs than neurons in more caudal visual areas.