Living on the good soil: relationships between soils,vegetation and human settlement during the late Allerød period in Denmark

The immigration of woody plants, especially Betula (tree birch), is examined in relation to geomorphological regions in a compilation of Late-glacial plant macrofossil records from Denmark. The immigration of trees led to a large ecological transformation of the landscape and had a major effect on the flora and fauna available to Palaeolithic people. We show that soil type was a controlling factor in the development of vegetation during the Allerød and Younger Dryas periods. Following the first immigration of trees during the Allerød period, woods became established in the eastern part of Denmark, where ice advances from the Baltic had deposited calcareous and clayey sediments. The western and northern parts of Denmark that are characterised by more sandy and non-calcareous sediments remained treeless throughout the whole Late-glacial period. Finds from the Bromme Culture are concentrated in the region which was wooded, suggesting that the regional variable environment allowed local adaptations using the diverse resources available.     

Strontium stratigraphy of the Oligocene–Early Miocene shellbeds of the Kutch Basin,western India,and its implications

The Kutch Basin is unique among the western Indian sedimentary basins because of its near-complete sequence of post-Palaeozoic rocks. Due to extensive marine influence, the Oligocene–Early Miocene formations of the basin, namely Maniyara Fort, Khari Nadi and Chhasra, contain numerous shellbeds. Although age assignments of these formations exist based on foraminiferal biostratigraphy, detailed numerical age of the lithounits are yet to be established. We have identified a total of eleven distinct shellbeds (oldest SB 01 to youngest SB11) from this interval primarily containing bivalve fossils. Using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of selected oyster and pectinid shells with pristine shell characteristics, we report the age of four shellbeds. The ages of SB 01, SB 04, SB 06 and SB 10 are 24.37, 17.31, 16.85 and 15.38 Ma, respectively. Our dates suggest a Chattian (24.37 Ma) age for SB 01 from the Bermoti Member, validating the previous biostratigraphical estimates from the Maniyara Fort Formation. The Chhasra Formation, however, shows a younger range of ages (17.31–15.38 Ma) characterized by a transition from the Burdigalian (SB 04–SB 06) to the Langhian (SB 10) stages. These dates have important implications in the study of sequence stratigraphy, Palaeobiogeography and tectonic history of the Kutch Basin. A surface with subaerial exposure is found in SB 08 (between 16.85 and 15.38 Ma) that corresponds to a global eustatic sea-level decrease (Mi2). Our new dates will also help evaluate the response of marine fauna to the closure of the Tethyan seaway around 19 Ma due to the formation of ‘Gomphotherium Landbridge’. The dated shellbeds enable us to identify pre- and post-closure fauna and assess the effect of biogeographical separation on these fauna. These dates have important implications in evaluating the regional geological record of western India in the context of various global events.     

Vegetation characteristics in the western Loess plateau between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. based on fossil charcoal records

Understanding terrestrial vegetation dynamics is a crucial tool in global change research. The Loess Plateau, an important area for the study of Asian monsoons and early agriculture, poses a controversial question on the potential vegetation and its pattern. Fossil charcoal as direct evidence of wood provides precision in species identification and hence vegetation reconstruction. Charcoals from the Dadiwan and Xishanping sites suggest a great variety of plants between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. in the valley area of the western Loess Plateau. The deciduous broad-leaf wood from Quercus, Ulmus, Betula, Corylus and Acer is very frequent and makes up almost half the total abundance ratio of the represented taxa. Meanwhile, some typical subtropical taxa such as Liquidambar formosana, Eucommia ulmoides, Toxicodendron and Bambusoideae, are present at the two study sites. The high abundance of Picea appearing between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. suggests the development of Picea forests in the valley of the western Loess Plateau. The assemblages of charcoal indicate that the mixed forest of evergreen deciduous and conifer-deciduous broadleaved trees developed in the valley of the Loess Plateau during the Holocene optimum. Precipitation is the main controlling factor for forest development. The increasing precipitation is the probable reason for the appearance of north-subtropical forests between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p.     

Vegetation history and landscape management from 6500 to 1500 cal. b.p. at Lac d’Antre, Gallo-Roman sanctuary of Villards d’Héria, Jura, France

The lake sediment record was used to reconstruct past vegetation dynamics and human impacts from the middle Neolithic (6500 cal. b.p.) to the Middle Ages (1500 cal. b.p.) around Lac d’Antre in the southern Jura mountains of France. This lake was surrounded by the Gallo-Roman sanctuary of Villards d’Héria, which has been widely investigated by archaeologists and enables a comparison between palaeoenvironmental proxies and archaeological data. Pollen and microscopic charcoal analyses were conducted on a 500 cm sediment core with eleven radiocarbon dates providing the chronological control. In a mixed oak woodland context, the successive development of Taxus, Fagus and Abies were mainly caused by climatic variations during the Neolithic, in which there was weak human impact. The first significant signs of human activity were detected during the Bronze Age from 3900 cal. b.p., followed by an increase of human pressure and woodland clearances during the Iron Age, from 2700 cal. b.p. The occupation of the Gallo-Roman sanctuary was continuous with the Iron Age occupation. All the analysed palaeoenvironmental data indicate that the strongest human impact occurred during the Gallo-Roman period, which matches the occupation of Villards d’Héria previously dated by archaeologists from 2000 to 1700 cal. b.p., 1st to 3rd century a.d. Moreover, there appears to have been a new period of human settlement close to the lake at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The low charcoal accumulation rate (CHAR) recorded during the Bronze and Iron Ages suggests that fire was not the main agent used to clear the dense woods to create new cultivated fields and pastures. High CHAR values recorded during the Roman period may represent fire use for domestic and agro-pastoral activities.     

A quantitative study of the epiphytic vegetation on pollarded trunks of Fraxinus excelsior at Havrå, Osterøy,western Norway

The epiphytic vegetation on 19 pollarded trees of Fraxinus excelsior at the farm Havrå, Osterøy, western Norway was investigated. Each trunk was divided into a basal zone, a middle zone and a top zone. In each zone the four different aspects were analysed by squares (12 sampling units from each trunk). Within a total of 225 sampling units, 173 taxa were recorded (84 lichens, 72 bryophytes, 17 vascular plants). The epiphytic vegetation was classified into seven TWINSPAN groups, and it is shown by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) that these groups are mainly separated by the first two DCA axes. In an attempt to explain the floristic composition, several environmental variables were measured, and the floristic and environmental data were analysed by canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). A pollarded tree, depending on its age, represents a continuum of perhaps several hundred years. Some of the recorded epiphytic lichens are very rare in Norway, and the pollarded trees thus contribute greatly to the biodiversity of the old cultural landscape. Several epiphytic species take advantage of favourable light conditions on trunks in the open fields. At Havrå, woodland has developed by tree colonization of old meadows and open fields during the last 40 years after the cessation of earlier managements. Some floristic differences between the epiphytic vegetation on trunks in the open fields and in the woodland are found. This suggests a change in the epiphytic vegetation because of the creation of a more shady habitat in parts of the area during a few decades.     

Spatial-temporal character of vegetation cover and its influence factors in the Shule River Basin China,during 1985–2011

Abstract

Vegetation coverage is an important indicator of the terrestrial ecosystems, and it provides crucial significance for evaluation and analysis of vegetation change. The Shule River Basin is a typical ecological fragile region in the inland of Northwest China. We used vegetation coverage index as given in Technical Specifications for Assessment of Ecological Environment. Geographic information system (GIS) spatial analysis was used to analyze the temporal and spatial features of vegetation cover in the Shule River Basin and its influencing factors from 1986 to 2011. The results showed that vegetable cover is very low in most areas of Shule River Basin with only the upstream parts of the oasis and watershed haven high vegetation cover. The average vegetation coverage index increased from 6.78 to 8.31 during 1986–2011. An area of 59,998?km² in the Shule River Basin has unchanged vegetation coverage index and this account for 51.7% of watershed areas for the period of the study. Also, an area of 31,721?km² recorded an increased vegetable cover, accounting for 27.3% while an area of 24,372?km² decreased vegetation cover which accounts for 21.0%. There was different correlation between vegetation cover and annual precipitation in the Shule River Basin.     

Reconstruction of environment and history of plant use during the late Mesolithic (Ertebølle culture) at the inland settlement of Bökeberg III,southern Sweden

Pollen, plant macrofossils and charcoal were analysed from a lake-sediment sequence, including a refuse layer, from the Late Mesolithic settlement at Bökeberg III, southern Sweden. The chronology was established by means of AMS-dated plant macroremains. The results of the biostratigraphical studies indicate two settlement phases (A and B), at ca. 6650-6400 B.P. (5560-5320 cal. B.C.) and ca. 6150-5800 B.P. (5200-4680 cal. B.C.), respectively. The two settlement phases are associated with periods of low lake-level contemporaneous with the second major period of low lake levels during the Holocene in southern Sweden, and thus with a period of generally drier climate. The pollen analytical data suggest only minor human impact on the local vegetation during the two settlement phases. Three elm declines at ca. (1) 6200 B.P. (5200-5100 cal. B.C.), (2) 5450 B.P. (4340 cal. B.C.), and (3) 5150 B.P. (3980 cal. B.C.) are discussed. Elm decline 3 is synchronous with the classical north-west European elm decline. Elm declines 2 and 3 may be due to outbreaks of elm disease rather than to strong human impact or climate change. The charcoal analyses show that wood of a wide range of species was collected for fuel or other purposes. During phase A, plants used included acorns, hazelnuts and, possibly, Cornus sanguinea, and also Prunus spinosa, Sorbus aucuparia and Rubus idaeus. There is convincing evidence that Cladium mariscus was used for thatching. The second occupation phase, B, is characterised by the use of hazelnuts for food. The possible use of several other identified species is discussed.     

Variation in the reproductive performance of the Trollius–Chiastocheta mutualism at the edge of its range in north-east Germany

Empirical studies into obligate pollination mutualisms which elucidate the variation in reproductive performance of shrinking populations within human-altered environments are rare. This study focuses on the obligate pollination mutualism between Trollius europaeus (Ranunculaceae) and fly species of the genus Chiastocheta which act both as the plant’s main pollinators and as predators in that their larvae eat a fraction of the developing seeds. The study area is situated in the lowlands of north-east Germany. Many populations of T. europaeus have become comparatively small and scattered in this region as a consequence of agricultural land use intensification. We studied the plant’s reproductive fitness in populations ranging in size from 7 to 12,000 flowers. In a field experiment, we applied four pollination treatments and also recorded fly density in 28 natural T. europaeus populations. The fitness of the offspring from 19 populations was studied in a common garden experiment. In both approaches, a reduction in the fitness of small host plant populations could be demonstrated. Fitness loss can be put down to the quantitative and qualitative limitation of pollen caused by inbreeding and the negative feedback on relative seed set caused by the reduced ability of small plant populations to support a sufficiently large fly population. Although increases in fly density are associated with rising predation costs, the plant species’ net benefit is a positive function of its population size. Our study highlights the reproductive variability of the Trollius–Chiastocheta interaction along a population size gradient in a marginal region of its range, thus contributing to the understanding of the overall variability of this mutualism.     

Microbial community structure of sandy intertidal sediments in the North Sea, Sylt-Rømø Basin, Wadden Sea

Molecular biological methods were used to investigate the microbial diversity and community structure in intertidal sandy sediments near the island of Sylt (Wadden Sea) at a site which was characterized for transport and mineralization rates in a parallel study (D. de Beer, F. Wenzhöfer, T. Ferdelman, S.E. Boehme, M. Huettel, J.E.E. van Beusekom, M.E. Böttcher, N. Musat, N. Dubilier, Transport and mineralization rates in North Sea sandy intertidal sediments, Sylt-Romo Basin, Wadden Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr. 50 (2005) 113–127). Comparative 16S rRNA sequence analysis revealed a high bacterial diversity. Most sequences retrieved by PCR with a general bacterial primer set were affiliated with Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria, Deltaproteobacteria and the Pirellula cluster of Planctomycetales. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and slot-blot hybridization with group-specific rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes were used to characterize the microbial community structure over depth (0–12 cm) and seasons (March, July, October). We found high abundances of bacteria with total cell numbers up to 3×10⁹ cells ml⁻¹ and a clear seasonal variation, with higher values in July and October versus March. The microbial community was dominated by members of the Planctomycetes, the Cytophaga/Flavobacterium group, Gammaproteobacteria, and bacteria of the Desulfosarcina/Desulfococcus group. The high abundance (1.5×10⁷–1.8×10⁸ cells ml⁻¹ accounting for 3–19% of all cells) of presumably aerobic heterotrophic polymer-degrading planctomycetes is in line with the high permeability, deep oxygen penetration, and the high rates of aerobic mineralization of algal biomass measured in the sandy sediments by de Beer et al. (2005). The high and stable abundance of members of the Desulfosarcina/Desulfococcus group, both over depth and season, suggests that these bacteria may play a more important role than previously assumed based on low sulfate reduction rates in parallel cores (de Beer et al., 2005).     

Environmental change, bog history and human impact around 2900 b.c. in NW Germany–preliminary results from a dendroecological study of a sub-fossil pine woodland at Campemoor, Dümmer Basin

This paper presents a detailed dendroecological analysis of remains from a sub-fossil pine forest at the Campemoor in the Dümmer basin, NW Germany and of pine timbers from a contemporaneous Neolithic trackway Pr 32 through the Campemoor. Changes in growth pattern and population dynamics of the pines are discussed in context with the time of construction of the trackway. The findings date to the period around 3000 b.c. Together with palaeobotanical investigations (pollen and macro remains) and the archaeological results (trackway) the dendroecological analysis mirrors environmental changes and the response of people to these changes. In order to test this local development for a possible climate background, ring-width variability and population dynamics of the Campemoor pines and of the overall data set of Lower Saxonian sub-fossil oaks from bogs have been compared. The results of these investigations clearly indicate a common widespread turn from drier to more humid climate conditions as trigger for the transition period, initiating the raised bog growth. It happened in two phases at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, interrupted by a drier period between 2825 and 2770 b.c. Afterwards large areas of former settlement sites within today's Campemoor became inaccessible and were covered by raised bog.     

Sources of fish in the ephemeral western iishana region of the Cuvelai–Etosha Basin in Angola and Namibia

The triangle between the Kavango and Kunene rivers is drained by the Cuvelai, an ephemeral and deltaic drainage system covering more than 100 000 km². In good rainfall years, the area becomes populated by fish communities dominated by five species migrating southward towards the endorheic Etosha Pan, the basin’s terminal sump. When water dries up, fish subsequently die-off and their sudden appearance in rainy years has captivated scientists for decades. The current study was prompted by hitherto untapped indigenous knowledge through narratives of opportunistic fish harvesting of migrating fish at temporary connections between the Kunene River and the Cuvelai- Etosha Basin. A reconnaissance fish survey in 2017 was complemented by digital satellite images and elevation data analyses. Results support the presence of at least three major ephemeral fish migration routes. The dominant fish genera migrating upstream in Kunene tributaries comprise Enteromius, Oreochromis and Clarias, all eurytopic and known to undertake upstream, lateral and downstream migrations on floodplains. Although other notable fish refugia in the Cuvelai–Etosha Basin are yet to be identified, there is a necessity for the protection and management of these migration routes in tandem with studies on the nature and extent of this inter-basin fish migration under climate change and variability.     

The concept of life and its significance in the construction of the new ecosystem ecology of Bernard Patten, Sven Jørgensen and Milan Straskraba

In a series of articles, three system ecologists, B. Patten, S. J?rgensen and M. Straskraba attempt to construct a new ecosystem ecology. In this effort, an innovative ecological definition of life that originates from the cognitive domain is prevalent. To be more specific, living entities are defined as those who make models of reality. Through the exploration of this definition, we will try to point out the ontological and the epistemological characteristics of the new ecology. These characteristics facilitate the integration of physicochemical, biological and human systems into a common framework. Indeed, system ecologists attempt to unify the inorganic and the organic world, including human beings, under a universal evolutionary scheme. This scheme is organized around an innovative scientific hypothesi, namely the exergy storage hypothesis.     

Plant economy of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age: plant macroremains from the cave of Santa Maira (Alacant, Spain) ca. 12000–9000 b.p.

Up till now, plant macroremains of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age and the very early Holocene have very rarely been investigated on the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere. The use of systematic recovery techniques at the archaeological cave site of Santa Maira has allowed the recovery of a large amount of plant remains (fruits, seeds and wood) from Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic levels (12000–9000 b.p.) Charcoal analysis has allowed us to reconstruct the surrounding vegetation of the site. In the valley bottoms mesophilous woodland with Quercus was present even in the lowest layers (Upper Magdalenian) During the Late-glacial Juniperus was very important, in the early Holocene Quercus (both evergreen and deciduous) took over. Large numbers of macroremains of fruits (Quercus sp., Sorbus sp., Olea sp. and Vitis sp.) were found, but a significant quantity of legumes together with a few grass seeds have also been identified. This assemblage most probably represents the gathering of wild plant resources by the inhabitants of the cave, and allows us to reconstruct some of the food gathered from plant resources.     

Time and noise: the stable surroundings of reaction experiments, 1860–1890

The ‘Reaction experiment with Hipp chronoscope’ is one of the classical experiments of modern psychology. This paper investigates the technological contexts of this experiment. It argues that the development of time measurement and communication in other areas of science and technology (astronomy, the clock industry) were decisive for shaping the material culture of experimental in psychology. The chronoscope was constructed by Matthäus Hipp (1813–1893) in the late 1840s. In 1861, Adolphe Hirsch (1830–1901) introduced the chronoscope for measuring the ‘physiological time’ of astronomical observers. Hirsch’s observatory at Neuchâtel (Switzerland) served to control the quality of clocks produced in the nearby Jura mountains. Hipp provided the observatory with a telegraphic system that sent time signals to the centers of clock production. Time telegraphy constituted the stable surroundings of the reaction time experiments carried out by both astronomers and psychologists. This technology permitted precise measurements of short time intervals and offered to Hirsch, as well as to Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), a useful metaphor for conceptualizing their respective ‘epistemic objects’. But time telegraphy also limited the possibilities of the experimental work conducted within its framework. In particular, noise from outside and inside the research sites at Neuchâtel, Leipzig and elsewhere disturbed the precise communication of time.     

Epidemiology of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Mérida, Venezuela. I. Diversity and dispersion of phlebotomine species at 3 altitude levels and its possible role in the transmission of the disease

As part of an epidemiological study on leishmaniasis in Merida, Venezuela, the diversity and dispersion of sandflies species found in 15 localities between 175 m and 1,960 m.a.s.l., are presented. From 7,126 collected sandflies (5,132 female and 1,994 male), 24 species were identified, 10 of them recognized as anthropophilic. The relation species-altitude is presented, and the species composition found in human dwellings, periodomestic and sylvatic areas, are recorded. The possible role of the identified species on the transmission of leishmaniasis in the andean region, is discussed.     

The parasitoid complex of Parthenolecanium corni Bouché in the city of Tbilisi and its surroundings and comparison with some other European countries

The European fruit lecanium (EFL), Parthenolecanium corni Bouché (Hemiptera: Coccoidea), is a common and harmful soft scale, which attacks Fraxinus oxycarpa Willd. and other ornamental and orchard plants in Tbilisi, Georgia. This study investigates the phenology, degree of plant damage and effect of parasitoids on this scale in Tbilisi, a densely populated area. We present data on the 32 species of chalcidoid parasitoids recorded from EFL in Georgia and south-eastern Europe. The scale is heavily parasitized in Tbilisi, but we did not find any variation in seasonal abundance. The most common parasitoid of EFL was Blastothrix longipennis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae).     

Prehistory of plant growing and collecting in northern Italy, based on seed remains from the early Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (c. 5600–2100 cal b.c.)

The stages of the early Neolithic and the spread of agriculture in northern Italy are difficult to determine and basically still unclear, since this region was influenced by deeply different cultures coming from both the Mediterranean coasts and the Balkans. The complex interrelations due to the contributions from both cultures are reinterpreted here thanks to recent data, modifying a picture which 15 years ago was believed to be definite. According to radiocarbon chronology, the appearance of the earliest farming communities in northern Italy should be dated around 5600–5500 cal b.c. Early farmers cultivated several cereal and pulse taxa, of which the more important were Hordeum vulgare/distichum, Triticum dicoccum, T. monococcum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum, Lens culinaris and Pisum sp. In addition they gathered many wild plants. The spread of agriculture was a rapid phenomenon and within a few centuries agriculture was established into the Alps. Little is known about the middle and late Neolithic, with the Square-mouthed pottery culture “Bocca Quadrata”, from c. 5100 cal b.c. onwards, since most of the archaeological features discovered up to the present have produced only a few plant remains. We demonstrate the introduction of poppy and a few other innovations like a slightly increased cultivation of free-threshing cereals and flax. Archaeobotanical analyses from Chalcolithic or Copper Age settlements, from c. 3500 cal b.c. onwards, are even scarcer and a comparison with the earlier Neolithic settlements does not yet seem possible.     

Wood use in a medieval village: the contribution of wood charcoal analysis to the history of land use during the 13th and 14th centuries a.d. at Pobla d’Ifach, Calp, Alicante, Spain

Excavations on the Rock of Ifach, Alicante, Spain have revealed the remains of a medieval settlement that flourished between a.d. 1297 and 1359. Wood charcoal analysis combined with archaeological evidence and historical records allow an assessment of the local vegetation of the area during the medieval period, the obtaining and use of firewood and the commercial routes for supplying timber. Pinus halepensis and to a lesser degree various matorral taxa were used for fuel during the main occupation phases at the settlement. The resource exploitation network of the settlement expanded over the adjacent coastal area, with firewood obtained from pine woodlands there. The timbers used in the construction of the settlement were mainly from pines that originated nearby (P. halepensis) or which were transported by river from woodland areas to the north which were controlled by the Crown of Aragon (P. nigra/sylvestris, P. pinaster). The partial destruction of the village in a.d. 1359 and its gradual abandonment are reflected in changes observed in fuel supplying practices that then concentrated on the local matorral vegetation of the rock itself.     

Wood usage and its influence on the environment from the Neolithic until the Iron Age: a case study of the graves at Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany)

The investigated area near Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany) was used as a burial ground from the Neolithic until the Iron Age. Due to modern agriculture, the above-ground funerary monuments have been destroyed. Rescue excavations from 1976 to 1996 recovered the archaeological remains. In addition to the archaeological reassessment of the findings, further scientific analyses were carried out. The results of the charcoal analyses are presented in this paper. The overall spectrum of wood species represents the typical species composition of mixed oak forests. Over the whole investigated time span (Neolithic–Iron Age) these species alternate with a second group of taxa: species benefiting from better light conditions. In times of intensive human impact, these light-demanding taxa gained considerable importance, showing the opening of the wooded landscape. In phases with less human impact, a regeneration of mixed oak forest is detectable. For the Neolithic it was possible to develop a more detailed picture of wood usage based on 162 radiocarbon dates of 106 samples. These illustrate considerable changes during the Neolithic, which resulted in a varied pattern of open land and closed forest influenced by human presence and land use. Another important aspect of the Flintbek area is the handling of samples deriving from different contexts. While charcoal samples related to fire usage or grave constructions contain only slight contamination, samples from fillings (pits, burial layers) are characterized by charcoal dating being either too old or even too young for the archaeological context.