Energy requirements of captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus)

Food intake of captive cotton-top tamarins was measured at various stages of the life cycle and energy intake was calculated from the results. The intake of adults for maintenance was found to vary around 500 kJ X kg-3/4 X day-1 and to decrease with age. During the last 8 weeks of pregnancy, females increased in weight by about 2 g X day-1 but energy intake did not show a marked rise above the maintenance range. During lactation, their energy intake appeared to double. Measurements of intake at various stages of growth were compared with a model of the energy requirements for growth which predicted intake quite closely. Compared with non-primate mammals of similar size, the growth rate of this species is slow, and because of this, the energy intake during growth and lactation is also comparatively low.     

A breeding colony of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

A breeding colony of cotton-top tamarins is described where 91% of the breeding females are from the first and second laboratory-born generations, and whose infants have a one year survival rate of 62%. Mortality is greatest in the first week of life, and mortality rate is greater for a female's first litter than for subsequent litters. Females without early experience in caring for other infants have a higher infant mortality rate than females with such experience. No seasonal birth patterns have been observed. Large complex cages with food, water and runways located in the upper half of the cage, high protein diets and reduced handling of animals are suggested as additional variables affecting breeding success.     

Parturition and perinatal behaviour in captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Fourteen births to seven female cotton-top tamarins in a successful breeding colony were observed. All births occurred between 17:50 and 20:40. Behavioural changes indicating the onset of labour are described. Delivery was usually accomplished rapidly, with short intervals between successive infants. One suspected and one verified breech presentation occurred; these deliveries were accompanied by a marked increase in the duration of the interval between infants, and one infant apparently died during expulsion. All other presentations seen were vertex occiput posterior. Fathers, and sometimes older offspring of both sexes, frequently shared with the mother in eating the placenta. Carrying of infants by individuals other than the mother was rare in the hour after birth, and was usually confined to fathers. One primipara rejected her second-born infant, but all other parents showed competent parental behaviour from birth onwards. The results are compared to data from other primates, and their relevance to the successful breeding of this species is discussed.     

Changes in the activity of captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) over the breeding cycle

The energetic costs of reproduction are likely to be particularly high in the Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins), which characteristically produce twin litters. The activity of five captive breeding pairs of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) was investigated for a 6-month period covering the second half of pregnancy and lactation. Breeding males showed few major changes in activity over this period, but breeding females reduced their levels of locomotion during late pregnancy, and during lactation they spent up to twice as much time feeding and foraging as they did during pregnancy. These results support the hypothesis that the costs that callitrichid females incur when reproducing are likely to have been an important factor in the evolution of these species' communal rearing systems.     

Food-sharing in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Food-sharing behaviour was observed in 9 captive families of cotton-top tamarins (range 4-14 individuals per group), during meals of fresh fruit. Food was transferred to infants by their parents and older sibs in response to begging, and was also offered to them without prior solicitation. Older, mature, reproductively suppressed individuals shared more than young immature monkeys. Infants in larger families received more food than those in smaller ones, though individuals in smaller families shared more. Transfer to infants increased to a maximum at 12 weeks of age and then declined gradually. At one year of age they no longer received food from others. Food sharing by older siblings is a form of helping behaviour which may increase their inclusive fitness, and benefit parents, both directly, by reducing the costs they incur in rearing young, and indirectly, by increasing the amount of food available to infants.     

Adrenal gland tumours in two cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus)

Two adrenal gland tumours in captive born cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) are described. One was a pheochromocytoma in a 14-year-old male, the other one a cortical adenoma in a 7.5-year-old female. Both were associated with morphological signs of myocardial damage and circulatory problems. The findings are discussed and compared to adrenal gland tumours in man.     

Measurement of scrotum and testis size of unrestrained captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus)

Reproduction is restricted to a small number of animals within both captive and wild groups of callitrichid monkeys (marmosets and tamarins). Sexual development of nonbreeding group members might differ from that of active breeders. Measurements of physical growth typically involve animal handling. However, capture and restraint of callitrichid monkeys can disrupt natural behaviors and physiology. This study introduces a method for estimating size of external genitalia by measuring frontal scrotum width of unrestrained cotton-top tamarin males. We examined whether scrotum width was a reliable indicator of testis size, and whether the method provided information useful for comparisons of growth and development among individuals. Animals were lured to a standardized position, and maximum width of the scrotum was systematically compared to a card with a series of rectangles graded in 1 mm increments. Card measures were validated with caliper measurements of scrotum width and testicle dimensions. Regressions of testes dimensions measured by caliper on scrotum width measured by card were between 82 and 93%, suggesting that measures of frontal scrotum width provide consistent estimates of relative testis sizes. The period of rapid growth ended by roughly two years of age, after which scrotum size did not differ from that of breeding males.     

Noise-induced vocal modulation in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

The Lombard effect-an increase in vocalization amplitude in response to an increase in background noise-is observed in a wide variety of animals. We investigated this basic form of vocal control in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) by measuring the amplitude of a contact call, the combination long call (CLC), while simultaneously varying the background noise level. All subjects showed a significant increase in call amplitude and syllable duration in response to an increase in background noise amplitude. Together with prior results, this study shows that tamarins have greater vocal control in the context of auditory feedback perturbation than previously suspected.     

The effect of the captive environment on activity of captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

This study examined captive cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) behavior across 3 different exhibits: (a) a rainforest (30.5 m in diameter), where tamarins free-ranged with other species; (b) a caged outdoor exhibit (5 m in diameter); and (c) a caged enclosure, with access indoors (6 × 9m) and outdoors (2.5 × 2.5 m). The study observed tamarins using focal animal scan sampling in 10 min blocks. Scoring was on the percentage of intervals in which they engaged in 12 behaviors. The findings show significant differences in activity, inactivity, and visibility across exhibits and have important implications for reintroduction efforts.     

Pachyonychia congenita-like disorder in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus).

A spontaneous genodermatosis in 13 cotton-top tamarins is described as a retrospective study. The disease appeared as alopecia, pigmentary disturbances, and claw dystrophy similar but not identical to human Pachyonychia congenita. The disease in the tamarins seems to be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, becoming clinically apparent around adolescence. In certain families the neonatal mortality rate was also above average, reaching 100%.     

Rearing a second generation of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) in captivity

The average age at first parturition in captive-born female cotton-top tamarins was 31 months. Only 18% of full-term young born were successfully reared by primiparous females, but success increased with parity and 71% of babies born at 4th and 5th pregnancies were raised. 15% of litters were single births, 61% were twins and 24% were triplets. There was a seasonal distribution of births, with a clear peak in the spring months. The average interbirth interval was 294 days.     

A two-choice preference assessment with five cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

A study selected 5 cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) located at the Frank Buck Zoo in Gainesville, Texas, for a food preference assessment. The study used a paired-choice procedure across 7 different food items for all 5 tamarins. Preferences for the food items across all the tamarins varied, although general trends were noted as well. This article discusses the benefits of using paired-choice preference assessments in zoo settings.     

Naturally occurring Tyzzer's disease in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

We noted naturally occurring infection with Clostridium piliforme (Tyzzer's disease) in 2 captive-reared cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Spontaneous Tyzzer's disease has been reported in multiple species of laboratory, domestic, and wild animals but is extremely rare in humans and nonhuman primates. Distinct from idiopathic colitis, which is common in cotton-top tamarins, these 2 tamarins had severe, transmural, necrotizing typhlocolitis accompanied by myocarditis and hepatitis. Abundant bacteria compatible with C. piliforme, the etiologic agent of Tyzzer's disease, were present adjacent to lesions in the cecum-colon, liver, and heart. Therefore, colitis caused by C. piliforme, although rare, should be included as a differential diagnosis in cotton-top tamarins and as a cause of postnatal mortality in this species.     

Developmental changes in food transfers in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

We investigated the development of food transfer and independent feeding in cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) families. We studied the relationship between infant-directed vocalizations and food transfers on the development of independent feeding in infants. We experimentally tested ten infants (eight twins and two singletons) three times a week for 17 weeks from before weaning through 20 weeks. Food transfers and vocalizations made during tests were recorded and analyzed to determine (1) the role of vocalizations (C- and D- chirps and D-chirp series) in food acquisition, (2) the relationship between food transfers and individual food acquisition, and (3) whether, owing to energetic costs of nursing and carrying twins, food is transferred to twins sooner than to singletons. Infants were more successful in acquiring food via begging when adults produced repeated vocalizations than when adults did not vocalize. Adults emitted more food-related vocalizations in rapid series when in the presence of infants, whereas during feeding in the absence of infants only single unit vocalizations were produced. Begging occurred frequently. Changes over infant age were not significant when all infants were included in analysis. However, when twin data were analyzed alone, begging success changed significantly over months, with successful begging peaking in month 3 (week 12). Begging success rate did not differ between twins and singletons, although twins fed independently sooner and at a higher rate than did singletons.     

Causes of mortality in captive cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Cotton‐top tamarins have been housed in captivity in the United States for over five decades. These animals initially were managed in biomedical and research facilities, and more recently have been kept in zoos as well. Although the causes of mortality in captive cotton‐top tamarins have been a topic of investigation for biomedical colonies, they have not been addressed for the North American zoo population. In this retrospective study we review the causes of mortality in the AZA Cotton‐top Tamarin Species Survival Plan (SSP)© population during 1997–2001 to assess current husbandry practices and assist in further developing effective husbandry and management programs for this endangered species. Zoo Biol 23:127–137, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Reproductive events of wild cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in Colombia

Reproductive patterns of wild cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) females located in La Reserva Forestal Protectora Serranía de Coraza-Montes de María in Colosó, Colombia, were examined using long-term behavioral observations and fecal steroid analysis. Using an enzyme immunoassay, we analyzed fecal samples for E₁C and PdG. Comparisons of reproductive cycles of a reproductively active female and her daughters were made. An inhibition of ovarian cycles has been observed in daughters living in their families. However, daughters also exhibited normal ovarian cycling that subsequently resulted in pregnancy. Factors influencing the fertility are discussed as they relate to the reproductive strategies of wild cotton-top tamarin females. Am. J. Primatol. 43:329–337, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Campylobacter-induced enteritis and diarrhea in captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) during the first year of life

A prospective study of 43 cotton-top tamarins, from infancy to 6 to 17 months of age, was conducted to determine the epidemiology of Campylobacter spp. infection. Nine infants followed for one year in an isolation unit, where attendants wore protective clothing, did not become infected. In the main facility where 32 of 34 animals had repeated infections with C. coli, 6% of the infections developed initially in incubators, 66% in the nursery room, and 28% after transfer to the main colony. Fifteen of these tamarins also were infected with C. jejuni. Twenty percent of the infections developed initially in the nursery room and 80% in the colony. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of C. jejuni cultures revealed multiple reinfections with different strains. Both types of infections were most prevalent between 3 and 9 months of age. Campylobacterjejuni infection developed most frequently between April and June and C. coli infection developed between October and December. In the nursery, diarrhea developed most frequently at times when there was no infection with Campylobacter spp. Forty percent of animals with diarrhea in the nursery had C. coli and none had C. jejuni, whereas, in the colony, 49% had C. jejuni and 11% had C. coli infections. There was no association between these infections and diet or idiopathic colitis.     

Sexual communication between breeding male and female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), and its relationship to infant care

Male cotton-top tamarins have been shown to be responsive to female scent cues of ovulation, and are known to actively participate in infant care during the time when their mates are fertile. We measured urinary androgen levels and glucocorticoids in seven father tamarins for the first month following the birth of infants to determine 1) whether male tamarins showed an androgen response to their mate's postpartum ovulation, 2) when androgens rise relative to ovulation, 3) whether there is a glucocorticoid response, and 4) whether males alter their parenting behavior during their mate's receptive period. All of the males showed a significant increase in urinary androgens prior to the female's postpartum LH peak, which indicated ovulation. The hormonal increase, which included estradiol, occurred 3-7 days prior to the female's LH peak at a time that coincided with the female's follicular period. Corticosterone levels also peaked during that time, but did not correlate with androgen changes. Fathers did not alter their daily infant-carrying patterns relative to the androgen increase or at the time of the mate's LH peak. We conclude that male cotton-top tamarins experience an increase in androgens that coincides with their mate's postpartum ovulation, which ensures optimal fertility. However, this sexual communication does not alter father-infant interactions, which already occur at a high rate in this species.     

Contributions to infant care in captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus): The influence of age,sex, and reproductive status

Marmosets and tamarins are characterized by a reproductive strategy that includes twinning, and a communal rearing system in which infant care is shared among all group members, both breeders and nonbreeding helpers (often older offspring). In order to test some predictions about the extent to which different age-sex classes should invest in infants, contributions to infant carrying and food-sharing by all family members were measured in captive groups of cotton-top tamarins (Saquinus oedipus) ranging in size from 2 to 12 independent individuals. Fourteen litters were observed from birth to 12 weeks. Carrying by mothers decreased steadily over the study period, while carrying by fathers and other offspring increased for 3–5 weeks, then declined. Infants spent more time carried by siblings than by either parent, but parents did more carrying than individual siblings and, also, shared more food with infants. Older siblings contributed more care than younger siblings did. Adult sons carried infants more than adult daughters did, but immature daughters carried more than immature sons did. However, adult daughters actively offered food to infants more than any other class of helper did. These results were interpreted in the light of hypotheses concerning the reproductive and dispersal strategies of callitrichid species.     

Changes in body mass of expectant male cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

It has been noted that expectant cotton-top tamarin males in captivity experience a body mass increase during the last months of their mates' pregnancies, and this has been explained as being a male physiological response. We studied the body mass of 4 inexperienced and 4 experienced expectant males, and we expected to observe a larger body mass increase among the experienced ones since they undergo multiple hormonal changes in comparison to inexperienced expectant males. However, while inexperienced expectant males gained body mass during months 4-6 of the pregnancy period by a mean +/-SD of 5.4 +/- 3.1% (i.e. 29 +/- 17 g), the experienced ones did not (mean +/- SD of months 4-6, 0.5 +/- 1.7%, i.e. 5 +/- 12 g). The results suggest that other factors, such as behavioural communication between pairs and feeding and resting behaviour, should be studied in order to clarify the basis of this body mass increase.