A study of the catalytic properties of the nitrile hydratase immobilized on aluminum oxides and carbon-containing adsorbents

The nitrile hydratase isolated from Rhodococcus ruber strain gt1, displaying a high nitrile hydratase activity, was immobilized on unmodified aluminum oxides and carbon-containing adsorbents, including the carbon support Sibunit. The activity and operational stability of the immobilized nitrile hydratase were studied in the reaction of acrylonitrile transformation into acrylamide. It was demonstrated that an increase in the carbon content in the support led to an increase in the amount of adsorbed enzyme and, concurrently, to a decrease in its activity. The nitrile hydratase immobilized on Sibunit and carbon-containing aluminum α-oxide having a “crust” structure displayed the highest operational stability in acrylonitrile hydration. It was shown that the thermostability of adsorbed nitrile hydratase increased by one order of magnitude.     

Immobilization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhodococcus ruber</Emphasis> strain gt1, possessing nitrile hydratase activity,on carbon supports

Rhodococcus ruber strain gt1, possessing nitrile hydratase activity, was immobilized by adsorption on carbon supports differing in structure and porosity. The adsorption capacity of the supports towards cells, the substrate of the nitrile hydratase reaction (acrylonitrile), and the product (acrylamide) was studied. Also, the effect of immobilization on nitrile hydratase activity of bacteria was investigated, and the operational stability of the immobilized biocatalyst was determined. It was shown that crushed and granulated active coals were more appropriate for immobilization than fibrous carbon adsorbents.     

Nitrile-metabolizing potential of Amycolatopsis sp. IITR215

Strain Amycolatopsis sp. IITR215 was isolated from a sewage sample using polyacrylonitrile powder as the sole nitrogen source. Identification was performed by 16S rDNA analysis. The isolated strain harbored multiple nitrile-metabolizing enzymes having a wide range of substrate specificities. It metabolized nitrile and amide compounds with constitutive enzymes. Studies using an amidase inhibitor showed that hydrolysis of acrylonitrile and acrylamide occurred due to nitrile hydratase and amidase, respectively, while hydrolysis of hexanenitrile was due to the action of either nitrilase or a second nitrile hydratase/amidase system. The inhibitory effects of N-bromosuccinimide and N-ethylmaleimide on enzymes of this culture were also studied and this further indicated the involvement of either a nitrilase or a second nitrile hydratase/amidase system for hydrolysis of hexanenitrile. Interestingly, hexanenitrile hydrolysis exhibited an optimum temperature of 55 °C, whereas acrylonitrile and acrylamide hydrolysis showed an optimum temperature of 45 °C. The optimum pH was 5.8 for hexanenitrile hydrolysis and 7.0 for acrylonitrile and acrylamide hydrolysis. Hexanenitrile hydrolysis by enzymes of this strain showed better organic solvent tolerance in the presence of alcohols. The maximum enzyme activity of nitrile-metabolizing enzymes was found using media containing isobutyramide as the nitrogen source. This is the first report on constitutive multiple enzymes from the Amycolatopsis genus.     

Immobilization of Rhodococcus ruber strain gt1, possessing nitrile hydratase activity, on carbon sorbents

Rhodococcus ruber strain gtl, possessing nitrile hydratase activity, was immobilized by adsorption on carbon supports differing in structure and porosity. The adsorption capacity of the supports towards cells, the substrate of the nitrile hydratase reaction (acrylonitrile), and the product (acrylamide) was studied. Also, the effect of immobilization and nitrile hydratase activity of bacteria was investigated, and the operational stability of the immobilized biocatalyst was determined. It was shown that crushed and granulated active coals were more appropriate for immobilization than fibrous carbon adsorbents.     

Biotransformation of acrylonitrile to acrylamide using immobilized whole cells of Brevibacterium CH1 in a recycle fed-batch reactor

Acrylamide was produced from acrylonitrile using immobilized Brevibacterium CH1 cells that were isolated from soil and found to possess nitrile hydratase activity. The reaction conditions and stability of the enzyme activity were studied. The conversion yield was nearly 100%, including a trace amount of acrylic acid. This strain showed strong activity of nitrile hydratase toward acrylonitrile and extremely low activity of amidase toward acrylamide. A packed bed reactor was operated in a fed-batch manner for acrylamide production of high concentration. The acrylonitrile concentration was maintained below 3% and the operating temperature at 4 degrees C to minimize enzyme deactivation.     

Transformation of 2- and 4-cyanopyridines by free and immobilized cells of nitrile-hydrolyzing bacteria

The transformation dynamics of 2- and 4-cyanopyridines by cells suspended and adsorbed on inorganic carriers has been studied in the Rhodococcus ruber gt1 possessing nitrile hydratase activity and the Pseudomonas fluorescens C2 containing nitrilase. It was shown that both nitrile hydratase and nitrilase activities of immobilized cells against 2-cyanopyridine were 1.5–4 times lower compared to 4-cyanopyridine and 1.6–2 times lower than the activities of free cells against 2-cyanpopyridine. The possibility of obtaining isonicotinic acid during the combined conversion of 4-cyanopyridine by a mixed suspension of R. ruber gt1 cells with a high level of nitrile hydratase activity and R. erythropolis 11-2 cells with a pronounced activity of amidase has been shown. Immobilization of Rhodococcus cells on raw coal and Pseudomonas cells on kaolin was shown to yield a heterogeneous biocatalyst for the efficient transformation of cyanopyridines into respective amides and carboxylic acids.     

Production of acrylamide using immobilized cells of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhodococcus rhodochrous</Emphasis> M33

The cellsof Rhodococcus rhodochrous M33, which produce a nitrile hydratase enzyme, were immobilized in acrylamide-based polymer gels. The optimum pH and temperature for the activity of nitrile hydratase in both the free and immobilized cells were 7.4 and 45°C, respectively, yet the optinum temperature for acrylamide production by the immobilized cells was 20°C. The nitrile hydratase of the immobilized cells was more stable with acrylamide than that of the free cells. Under optimal conditions, the final acrylamide concentration reached about 400 g/L with a conversion yield of almost 100% after 8 h of reaction when using 150 g/L of immobilized cells corresponding to a 1.91 g-dry cell weight/L. The enzyme activity of the immobilized cells rapidly decreased with repeated use. However, the quality of the acrylamide produced by the immobilized cells was much better than that produced by the free cells in terms of color, salt content, turbidity, and foam formation. The quality of the aqueous acrylamide solution obtained was found to be of commercial use without further purification.     

Solvent Effects on Circular Dichroism of Colominic Acid

To produce acrylamide from acrylonitrile by use of a new enzyme, nitrile hydratase, a number of nitrile-utilizing microorganisms were screened for the enzyme activity by an intact cell system. An isobutyronitrile-utilizing bacterium, strain B23, showed the best productivity among 186 strains tested. The strain was identified taxonomically as Pseudomonas chlor or aphis. The culture and reaction conditions for the production were studied for the strain. Under the optimum conditions, 400 grams/liter of acrylamide was produced in 7.5 hr. The yield was nearly 100% with a trace amount of acrylic acid. The cell-free extract of the strain showed strong activity of nitrile hydratase toward acrylonitrile and extremely low activity of amidase toward acrylamide.     

微生物法生产丙烯酰胺的研究（Ⅱ）—腈水合酶催化反应动力学与失活动力学

在以丙烯腈为原料 ,微生物转化生产丙烯酰胺的过程中 ,酶催化反应是过程的关键。为了了解酶催化的动力学 ,本研究以自由细胞的酶为催化剂 ,进行了腈水合酶的反应动力学和失活动力学的研究。首先研究了菌体浓度、温度、pH值、丙烯腈浓度、丙烯酰胺浓度等对腈水合酶催化反应速度的影响。结果表明 ,在这些因素中 ,温度和丙烯酰胺浓度是最主要的影响因素。 2 8℃时酶活为 5 6 5 9u mL(菌液 ) ,在 5℃时的反应速率仅为 2 8℃时的11 72 % ,相应的表观酶活为 6 6 3u mL(菌液 )。而在丙烯酰胺 45 %浓度条件下的酶活大约只有丙烯酰胺 5 %浓度下的酶活的 1 2。经过对不同温度下的反应速度的研究 ,得到腈水合酶水合反应的活化能为 6 5 5 7kJ·mol- 1 。本文进一步研究了自由细胞状态下 ,菌体浓度、pH值、温度、丙烯腈浓度、丙烯酰胺浓度对腈水合酶失活的影响 ,得到了失活动力学。结果表明 ,在这些因素中 ,对酶失活影响的最主要因素还是温度和丙烯酰胺浓度。尤其当丙烯酰胺浓度到达 35 %时 ,酶活下降得很快 ,在 5 5h后 ,酶活几乎为零。而在丙烯酰胺浓度为 10 %的情况下 ,5 5h的酶活仍然还存在约 5 0 %。试验结果还表明 ,丙烯腈对酶的稳定性的影响很小。经过数据处理 ,得到的 2 8℃的酶失活速率常数为 5℃下的 2 1 7     

Construction of a New Shuttle Vector for Zymomonas mobilis

The culture conditions for Rhodococcus sp. N-774 cells showing high nitrile hydratase activity and the reaction conditions for acrylamide production by the resting cells were optimized. Thiamine was essential for the growth of the strain. Yeast extract and Fe^{2 +} or Fe^{3 +} remarkably promoted the formation of nitrile hydratase of the cells. The reaction proceeded optimally at temperatures below 30°C. Incubation for 1 hr at above 40°C resulted in inactivation of the enzyme. Through reaction at a temperature as low as 0°C, the inhibition and inactivation of the enzyme activity by the substrate, acrylonitrile, and the product, acrylamide, were remarkably reduced, and higher accumulation of acrylamide could be attained. Under the optimal conditions, a more than 20% (w/v) acrylamide solution was obtained with a conversion yield of nearly 100%. Thus, the aqueous acrylamide solution obtained showed a high enough quality for use for the commercial preparation of polyacrylamide.     

An isobutyronitrile-induced bienzymatic system of Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10674 and its application in the synthesis of α-hydroxyisobutyric acid

Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10674 was isolated as acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing bacterium from soil of orchid gardens of Himachal Pradesh. Acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing activity of this organism comprised nitrile hydratase and amidase activities. It exhibited higher substrate specificity towards aliphatic hydroxynitrile (acetone cyanohydrin) in comparison to arylaliphatic hydroxynitrile. Isobutyronitrile (40 mM) acted as a carbon source as well as inducer for growth of Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10674 and expression of acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing activity. Optimization of culture condition using response surface methodology increased acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing activity by 1.3-fold, while inducer mediation approach increased the activity by 1.2-fold. The half life of this enzyme was 25 h at 15 °C. V _max and K _m value for acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing enzyme was 0.71 μmol mg^?1 min^?1 and 14.3 mM, when acetone cyanohydrin was used as substrate. Acetone cyanohydrin hydrolyzing enzyme encountered product inhibition and IC50 and K _i value were calculated to be 28 and 10.2 mM, respectively, when product α-hydroxyisobutyric acid was added in the reaction. Under optimized reaction conditions at 40 ml fed batch scale, 3 mg dcw ml ^? resting cells of Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10674 fully converted 0.33 M acetone cyanohydrin into α-hydroxyisobutyric acid (1.02 g) in 6 h 40 min. The characterization of acetone cyanohydrins hydrolyzing activity revealed that it comprises bienzymatic nitrile hydrolyzing system, i.e. nitrile hydratase and amidase for the production of α-hydroxyisobutyric acid from acetone cyanohydrin and maximum 70 % yield is being reported for the first time.     

Stereoselective biotransformation of phenylglycine nitrile by heterogeneous biocatalyst based on immobilized bacterial cells and enzyme preparation

We studied the effect of a heterogeneous environment on the stereoselectivity of transformation of racemic phenylglycine nitrile. Immobilized biocatalysts were prepared by adhesion of Pseudomonas fluorescens C2 cells on carbon-containing supports and covalent crosslinking of nitrile hydratase and amidase of Rhodococcus rhodochrous 4–1 to activated chitosan as well as by the method of cross-linked aggregates. At a reaction duration of 20 h, the ratio of phenylglycine stereoisomers changes depending on the presence of support in medium. The highest optical purity of the product (enantiomeric excess of L-phenylglycine solution, 98%) is achieved when enzyme aggregates of nitrile hydratase and amidase cross-linked with 0.1% glutaraldehyde are used as a biocatalyst.     

Acrylamide synthesis using agar entrapped cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhodococcus rhodochrous</Emphasis> PA-34 in a partitioned fed batch reactor

The nitrile hydratase (Nhase) induced cells of Rhodococcus rhodochrous PA-34 catalyzed the conversion of acrylonitrile to acrylamide. The cells of R. rhodochrous PA-34 immobilized in 2% (w/v) agar (1.76 mg dcw/ml agar matrix) exhibited maximum Nhase activity (8.25 U/mg dcw) for conversion of acrylonitrile to acrylamide at 10°C in the reaction mixture containing 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), 8% (w/v) acrylonitrile and immobilized cells equivalent to 1.12 mg dcw (dry cell weight) per ml. In a partitioned fed batch reaction at 10°C, using 1.12 g dcw immobilized cells in a final volume of 1 l, a total of 372 g of acrylonitrile was completely hydrated to acrylamide (498 g) in 24 h. From the above reaction mixture 87% acrylamide (432 g) was recovered through crystallization at 4°C. By recycling the immobilized biocatalyst (six times), a total of 2,115 g acrylamide was produced.     

Biochemical characterization of Rhodococcus erythropolis N′4 nitrile hydratase acting on 4-chloro-3-hydroxybutyronitrile

The Rhodococcus erythropolis strain (N′4) possesses the ability to convert 4-chloro-3-hydroxybutyronitrile into the corresponding acid. This conversion was determined to be performed by its nitrile hydratase and amidase. Ammonium sulfate fractionation, DEAE ion exchange chromatography, and phenyl chromatography were used to partially purify nitrile hydratase from cell-free extract. A SDS-PAGE showed that the partially purified enzyme had two subunits and gel filtration chromatography showed that it consisted of four subunits of α₂β₂. The purified enzyme had a high specific activity of 860 U mg⁻¹ toward methacrylonitrile. The enzyme was found to have high activity at low temperature range, with a maximum activity occurring at 25 °C and be stable in the presence of organic acids at higher temperatures. The enzyme exhibited a preference for aliphatic saturated nitrile substrates over aliphatic unsaturated or aromatic ones. It was inhibited by sulfhydryl, oxidizing, and serine protease inhibitors, thus indicating that essential cysteine and serine residues can be found in the active site.The purified nitrile hydratase was able to convert 4-chloro-3-hydroxybutyronitrile into the corresponding amide at 15 °C. GC analysis showed that the initial conversion rate of the reaction was 215 mg substrate consumed min⁻¹ mg⁻¹. This demonstrated that this enzyme could be used in conjunction with a stereoselective amidase to synthesize ethyl (S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxybutyrate, an intermediate for a hypercholesterolemia drug, Atorvastatin.     

ESR Spectral Studies on the Free Radical Formed by the Reaction of Dehydroascorbic Acid with Amino Acid

Acrylonitrile-hydrating activity was found in various bacteria belonging to the genera Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Microbacterium, Nocardia, Pseudomonas and Rhodococcus. A strain, N-774, isolated by acetonitrile enrichment culture from soil showed the highest activity. Taxonomic studies indicated that strain N-774 belonged to the genus Rhodococcus. The acrylonitrile-hydrating enzyme of strain N-774 was constitutively formed in the cells. Besides acrylonitrile, many nitriles were hydrated to the corresponding amides. «-Butyronitrile, suc- cinonitrile and chloroacetonitrille served as suitable substrates. This bacterium could utilize many aliphatic nitriles and amides as a sole source of nitrogen but hardly utilized malononitrile, acrylonitrile or acrylamide. Cells having high nitrile hydratase activity (about 50units/mg of dry cells) could be easily prepared by cultivation at 30°C for 40 hr in a malt extract and yeast extract medium.     

Characterisation of the nitrile hydratase gene clusters of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhodococcus erythropolis</Emphasis> strains AJ270 and AJ300 and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microbacterium</Emphasis> sp. AJ115 indicates horizontal gene transfer and reveals an insertion of IS1166

The nitrile metabolising strains AJ270, AJ300 and AJ115 were isolated from the same location. The strains have very similar nitrile metabolising profiles. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene indicates that strains AJ270 and AJ300 are novel strains of Rhodococcus erythropolis while strain AJ115 is a novel Microbacterium strain very closely related to Microbacterium oxydans and Microbacterium liquefaciens. Analysis of the structure of the nitrile hydratase/amidase gene clusters in the three strains indicates that this region is identical in these strains and that this structure is different to other nitrile hydratase/amidase gene clusters. The major difference seen is the insertion of a complete copy of the insertion sequence IS1166 in the nhr2 gene. This copy of IS1166 generates a 10 bp direct duplication at the point of insertion and has one ORF encoding a protein of 434 amino acids, with 98% homology to the transposase of IS666 from Mycobacterium avium. A gene oxd, encoding aldoxime dehydratase is found upstream of the nitrile hydratase gene cluster and an open reading frame encoding a protein with homology to GlnQ type ABC transporters is found downstream of the nitrile hydratase/amidase genes. The identity of the nitrile hydratase/amidase gene clusters in the three strains suggests horizontal gene transfer of this region. Analysis of the strains for both linear and circular plasmids indicates that both are present in the strains but hybridisation studies indicate that the nitrile hydratase/amidase gene cluster is chromosomally located. The nitrile hydratase/amidase enzymes of strain AJ270 are inducible with acetonitrile or acetamide. Interestingly although a number of Fe-type nitrile hydratases have been shown to be photosensitive, the enzyme from strain AJ270 is not.     

Nitrile hydratase genes are present in multiple eukaryotic supergroups

Background

Nitrile hydratases are enzymes involved in the conversion of nitrile-containing compounds into ammonia and organic acids. Although they are widespread in prokaryotes, nitrile hydratases have only been reported in two eukaryotes: the choanoflagellate Monosiga brevicollis and the stramenopile Aureococcus anophagefferens. The nitrile hydratase gene in M. brevicollis was believed to have arisen by lateral gene transfer from a prokaryote, and is a fusion of beta and alpha nitrile hydratase subunits. Only the alpha subunit has been reported in A. anophagefferens.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here we report the detection of nitrile hydratase genes in five eukaryotic supergroups: opisthokonts, amoebozoa, archaeplastids, CCTH and SAR. Beta-alpha subunit fusion genes are found in the choanoflagellates, ichthyosporeans, apusozoans, haptophytes, rhizarians and stramenopiles, and potentially also in the amoebozoans. An individual alpha subunit is found in a dinoflagellate and an individual beta subunit is found in a haptophyte. Phylogenetic analyses recover a clade of eukaryotic-type nitrile hydratases in the Opisthokonta, Amoebozoa, SAR and CCTH; this is supported by analyses of introns and gene architecture. Two nitrile hydratase sequences from an animal and a plant resolve in the prokaryotic nitrile hydratase clade.

Conclusions/Significance

The evidence presented here demonstrates that nitrile hydratase genes are present in multiple eukaryotic supergroups, suggesting that a subunit fusion gene was present in the last common ancestor of all eukaryotes. The absence of nitrile hydratase from several sequenced species indicates that subunits were lost in multiple eukaryotic taxa. The presence of nitrile hydratases in many other eukaryotic groups is unresolved due to insufficient data and taxon sampling. The retention and expression of the gene in distantly related eukaryotic species suggests that it plays an important metabolic role. The novel family of eukaryotic nitrile hydratases presented in this paper represents a promising candidate for research into their molecular biology and possible biotechnological applications.     

Characterization of a Nitrilase and a Nitrile Hydratase from Pseudomonas sp. Strain UW4 That Converts Indole-3-Acetonitrile to Indole-3-Acetic Acid

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a fundamental phytohormone with the ability to control many aspects of plant growth and development. Pseudomonas sp. strain UW4 is a rhizospheric plant growth-promoting bacterium that produces and secretes IAA. While several putative IAA biosynthetic genes have been reported in this bacterium, the pathways leading to the production of IAA in strain UW4 are unclear. Here, the presence of the indole-3-acetamide (IAM) and indole-3-acetaldoxime/indole-3-acetonitrile (IAOx/IAN) pathways of IAA biosynthesis is described, and the specific role of two of the enzymes (nitrilase and nitrile hydratase) that mediate these pathways is assessed. The genes encoding these two enzymes were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the enzymes were isolated and characterized. Substrate-feeding assays indicate that the nitrilase produces both IAM and IAA from the IAN substrate, while the nitrile hydratase only produces IAM. The two nitrile-hydrolyzing enzymes have very different temperature and pH optimums. Nitrilase prefers a temperature of 50°C and a pH of 6, while nitrile hydratase prefers 4°C and a pH of 7.5. Based on multiple sequence alignments and motif analyses, physicochemical properties and enzyme assays, it is concluded that the UW4 nitrilase has an aromatic substrate specificity. The nitrile hydratase is identified as an iron-type metalloenzyme that does not require the help of a P47K activator protein to be active. These data are interpreted in terms of a preliminary model for the biosynthesis of IAA in this bacterium.     

Occurrence of Amidases in the Industrial Microbe Rhodococcus rhodochrous J1

Rhodococcus rhodochrous J1, of which the high-M_r nitrile hydratase has been used for the industrial manufacture of acrylamide from acrylonitrile, produced at least two amidases differing in substrate specificity, judging from the effects of various amides on amidase activity in this strain. These amidases seemed to be inducible enzymes depending on amide compounds.