Compartmental Organization of the Synthesis of GM3, GD3, and GM2 in Golgi Membranes from Neural Retina Cells

The relationship among lactosylceramide-(LacCer), GD3- and GM2-synthases and between the two last transferases and their common GM3 acceptor was investigated in intact Golgi membrane from chick embryo neural retina cells at early (8-days) and late (14 days) stages of the embryonic development. [³H]Gal was incorporated into endogenous glucosylceramide by incubation of Golgi membranes with UDP-[³H]Gal. Conversion of the synthesized [³H]Gal-LacCer into GM3, and of the latter into GD3, GM2 and GD2 was examined after a second incubation step with unlabeled CMP-NeuAc and/or UDP-GalNAc. With CMP-NeuAc, most [³H]Gal-LacCer was converted into GM3 in either 8- or 14- day membranes. However, while about 90% of GM3 was converted into GD3 in 8-day membranes, only about 25% followed this route in 14-day membranes. With CMP-NeuAc and UDP-GalNAc, about 90% of GM3 was used for synthesis of GM2 in 14-day membranes, while in 8-day membranes about 80% followed the route to GD3, and a part to GD2. Performing the second incubation step in the presence of increasing detergent concentrations showed that conversion of GM3 to GM2 was inhibited at concentrations lower than those required for inhibition of LacCer to GM3 conversion. Taken together, results indicate that transfer steps leading to synthesis of GM3, GD3, GM2 and GD2 from LacCer are functionally coupled in the Golgi membranes, and that GD3- and GM2-synthases compete in a common compartment for using a fraction of GM3 as substrate. In this competition, the relative activities of the transferases and their relative saturation with the respective donor sugar nucleotides, are important factors influencing conversion of GM3 toward either GD3 or GM2.     

Glucosylceramide Synthesized In Vitro from Endogenous Ceramide is Uncoupled from Synthesis of Lactosylceramide in Golgi Membranes from Chicken Embryo Neural Retina Cells

It is known that ceramide (Cer), the precursor of sphingoglycolipids and of sphingomyelin, participates in events leading to activation of the apoptotic pathway, and per se or through conversion to glucosylceramide (GlcCer) modulates formation of neuritic processes in developing neurons. To learn about the fate of de novo synthesized Cer and GlcCer we examined, in Golgi membranes from chicken embryo neural retina cells, the metabolic relationships of endogenous Cer, GlcCer and lactosylceramide (LacCer). Incubation of the membranes with UDP-[³H]Glc revealed a pool of endogenous Cer useful for synthesis of GlcCer. Most of the GlcCer synthesized, however, was not used for synthesis of LacCer, indicating that it was functionally uncoupled from LacCer synthase. On the other hand, incubation with UDP-[³H]Gal revealed a pool of endogenous GlcCer that depending of the integrity of the membranes was functionally coupled to LacCer and ganglioside synthesis. These results indicate that most GlcCer formed in vitro from Cer is topologically segregated from the synthesis of LacCer. However, subfractionation in sucrose gradients of Golgi membranes labeled with both precursors failed to separate membranes enriched in [³H]GlcCer from those enriched in [³H]Gal-labeled LacCer. It is concluded that despite both transfer steps co-localize in the Golgi membranes, coupling of GlcCer synthesis to LacCer synthesis requires conditions not present in our in vitro assay. This suggests that a coupling activity exists that could be relevant for regulation of the cytoplasmic levels of Cer and GlcCer.     

GT3 Synthesis in the Proximal Golgi Occurs in a Compartment Different from Those for GD3 and GM3 Synthesis

Abstract: Previous studies from this laboratory have shown that synthesis of GT3, the precursor of c series gangliosides, occurs in proximal Golgi compartments, as has been shown for the synthesis of GM3 and GD3, the precursors of a and b series gangliosides, respectively. In this work we studied whether the synthesis of GM3, GD3, and GT3 occurs in the same or in different compartments of the proximal Golgi. For this, we examined in retina cells (a) the effect of monensin, a sodium ionophore that affects mostly the trans Golgi and the trans Golgi network function, on the metabolic labeling of glycolipids from [³H]Gal by cultured cells from 7- and 10-day chick embryos and (b) the labeling in vitro of endogenous glycolipids of Golgi membrane preparations from 7-day embryos incubated with UDP-[³H]Gal. In (a), 1 µM monensin produced a twofold accumulation of radioactive glucosylceramide and a decrease to ～50 and 20% of total ganglioside labeling in 7- and 10-day cells, respectively. At both ages, monensin produced a threefold accumulation of radioactive GM3 and an inhibition of >90% of GT3, GM1, GD1a, and GT1b synthesis. GD3 synthesis was inhibited ～30 and 70%, respectively, in 7- and 10-day cells. In (b), >80% of the [³H]Gal was incorporated into endogenous glucosylceramide to form radioactive lactosylceramide. About 90% of [³H]Gal-labeled lactosylceramide was converted into GM3, and most of this in turn into GD3 when unlabeled CMP-NeuAc was also present in the incubation system. Under the same conditions, however, <5% of labeled GD3 was converted into GT3. Golgi membranes incubated with CMP-[³H]NeuAc incorporated ～20% of [³H]NeuAc into endogenous GT3, and this percentage was not affected by 1 µM monensin. These results indicate that synthesis of GT3 is carried out in a compartment of the proximal Golgi different from those for lactosylceramide, GM3, and GD3 synthesis. Results from the experiments with monensin point to the cis/medial Golgi as the main compartment for coupled synthesis of lactosylceramide, GM3, and GD3 and to the trans Golgi as the main compartment for synthesis of GT3.     

Structure and Function of the Golgi Complex in Rice Cells: Characterization of Golgi Membrane Glycoproteins

The structure and synthesis of the saccharide chains of Golgimembrane glycoproteins in suspension-cultured rice (Oryza sativaL.) cells were studied. Peanut lectin (PNA) and Ulex europaeuslectin-I (UEA-I) have high affinity for typical O-linked saccharidechains and both recognized the saccharide chains of rice Golgimembrane glycoproteins. These glycoproteins were also sensitiveto alkali and to O-glycanase. These results indicate that theGolgi membrane glycoproteins have O-linked saccharide chains.Brefeldin A, a specific inhibitor of Golgi-mediated secretion,induced morphological changes in Golgi complexes and preventedthe synthesis of the saccharide chains of the membrane glycoproteinsthat could be recognized by PNA and UEA-I. These glycoproteinswere typically localized in all compartments of the Golgi complex.Monensin can arrest the transport of secretory proteins frommedial to trans Golgi compartments but did not affect the formationand localization of the Golgi membrane glycoproteins. Tunicamycin,an inhibitor of the synthesis of N-linked saccharide chains,did not inhibit the synthesis of the saccharide chains of theseGolgi membrane glycoproteins. These results strongly suggestthat the synthesis of O-linked saccharide chains of Golgi membraneglycoproteins is initiated in the cis Golgi compartment. (Received September 24, 1992; Accepted June 4, 1993)     

Mutants of Escherichia coli Defective in Membrane Phospholipid Synthesis: Macromolecular Synthesis in an sn-Glycerol 3-Phosphate Acyltransferase Km Mutant

sn-Glycerol 3-phosphate (G3P) auxotrophs of Escherichia coli have been selected from a strain which cannot aerobically catabolize G3P. The auxotrophy resulted from loss of the biosynthetic G3P dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.8) or from a defective membranous G3P acyltransferase. The apparent K(m) of the acyltransferase for G3P was 11- to 14-fold higher (from about 90 mum to 1,000 to 1,250 mum) in membrane preparations from the mutants than those of the parent. All extracts prepared from revertants of the G3P dehydrogenase mutants showed G3P dehydrogenase activity, but most contained less than 10% of the wild-type level. Membrane preparations from revertants of the acyltransferase mutants had apparent K(m)'s for G3P similar to that of the parent. Strains have been derived in which the G3P requirement can be satisfied with glycerol in the presence of glucose, presumably because the glycerol kinase was desensitized to inhibition by fructose 1,6-diphosphate. Investigations on the growth and macromolecular synthesis in a G3P acyltransferase K(m) mutant revealed that upon glycerol deprivation, net phospholipid synthesis stopped immediately; growth continued for about one doubling; net ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and protein nearly doubled paralleling the growth curve; the rate of phospholipid synthesis assessed by labeling cells with (32)P-phosphate, (14)C-acetate, or (3)H-serine was reduced greater than 90%; the rates of RNA and DNA synthesis increased as the cells grew and then decreased as the cells stopped growing; the rate of protein synthesis showed no increase and declined more slowly than the rates of RNA and DNA synthesis when the cells stopped growing. The cells retained and gained in the capacity to synthesize phospholipids upon glycerol deprivation. These data indicate that net phospholipid synthesis is not required for continued macromolecular synthesis for about one doubling, and that the rates of these processes are not coupled during this time period.     

Deficiency of the Cog8 Subunit in Normal and CDG‐Derived Cells Impairs the Assembly of the COG and Golgi SNARE Complexes

Multiple mutations in different subunits of the tethering complex Conserved Oligomeric Golgi (COG) have been identified as a cause for Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation (CDG) in humans. Yet, the mechanisms by which COG mutations induce the pleiotropic CDG defects have not been fully defined. By detailed analysis of Cog8 deficiency in either HeLa cells or CDG‐derived fibroblasts, we show that Cog8 is required for the assembly of both the COG complex and the Golgi Stx5‐GS28‐Ykt6‐GS15 and Stx6‐Stx16‐Vti1a‐VAMP4 SNARE complexes. The assembly of these SNARE complexes is also impaired in cells derived from a Cog7‐deficient CDG patient. Likewise, the integrity of the COG complex is also impaired in Cog1‐, Cog4‐ and Cog6‐depleted cells. Significantly, deficiency of Cog1, Cog4, Cog6 or Cog8 distinctly influences the production of COG subcomplexes and their Golgi targeting. These results shed light on the structural organization of the COG complex and its subcellular localization, and suggest that its integrity is required for both tethering of transport vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and the assembly of Golgi SNARE complexes. We propose that these two key functions are generally and mechanistically impaired in COG‐associated CDG patients, thereby exerting severe pleiotropic defects.     

Mislocalization of the Centromeric Histone Variant CenH3/CENP-A in Human Cells Depends on the Chaperone DAXX

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GM2/GM3 controls the organizational status of CD82/Met microdomains: further studies in GM2/GM3 complexation

Glycoconjugate Journal - At cell surface gangliosides might associate with signal transducers proteins, grown factor receptors, integrins, small G-proteins and tetraspanins establishing...     

Mutant Influenza Viruses with a Defective NS1 Protein Cannot Block the Activation of PKR in Infected Cells

A short model genome RNA and also the genome RNA of influenza A virus bearing both 5′- and 3′-terminal common sequences activated the interferon-induced double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR, by stimulating autophosphorylation in vitro. The activated PKR catalyzed phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eucaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α). The NS1 protein efficiently eliminated the PKR-activating activity of these RNAs by binding to them. Two mutant NS1 proteins, each harboring a single amino acid substitution at different regions, exhibited temperature sensitivity in their RNA binding activity in the mutant virus-infected cell lysates as well as when they were prepared as fusion proteins expressed in bacteria. The virus strains carrying these mutant NS1 proteins exhibited temperature sensitivity in virus protein synthesis at the translational level, as reported previously, and could not repress the autophosphorylation of PKR developing during the virus growth, which is normally suppressed by a viral function(s). As a result, the level of eIF2α phosphorylation was elevated 2.5- to 3-fold. The defect in virus protein synthesis was well correlated with the level of phosphorylation of PKR and eIF2α.     

Molecular Analysis of Arp2/3 Complex Activation in Cells

Many forms of cellular motility are driven by the growth of branched networks of actin filaments, which push against a membrane. In the dendritic nucleation model, Arp2/3 complex is critical, binding to the side of an existing mother filament, nucleating a new daughter filament, and thus creating a branch. Spatial and temporal regulation of Arp2/3 activity is critical for efficient generation of force and movement. A diverse collection of Arp2/3 regulatory proteins has been identified. They bind to and/or activate Arp2/3 complex via an acidic motif with a conserved tryptophan residue. We tested this model for Arp2/3 regulator function in vivo, by examining the roles of multiple Arp2/3 regulators in endocytosis in living yeast cells. We measured the molecular composition of the actin network in cells with mutations that removed the acidic motifs of the four Arp2/3 regulators previously shown to influence the proper function of the actin network. Unexpectedly, we did not find a simple or direct correlation between defects in patch assembly and movement and changes in the composition and dynamics of dendritic nucleation proteins. Taken together our data does not support the simple hypothesis that the primary role for Arp2/3 regulators is to recruit and activate Arp2/3. Rather our data suggests that these regulators may be playing more subtle roles in establishing functional networks in vivo.     

Structure and Function of the Golgi Complex in Rice Cells (II. Purification and Characterization of Golgi Membrane-Bound Nucleoside Diphosphatase)

The gene coding for phytoene desaturase of the bacterium Erwinia uredovora (crtI) was inserted into the chromosome of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus PCC7942 strain R2-PIM8. For expression of crtI in the heterologous host, two constructs with different promoters were introduced into Synechococcus. In the first, crtI was fused to the 5[prime] region of the psbA gene of the xanthophycean microalga Bumilleriopsis filiformis. The second construct carried crtI inserted downstream of the neomycin phosphotransferase II gene (nptII) from the transposon Tn5. Expression of crtI under the control of the respective promoter was shown by immunodetection of the gene product. The functionality of the heterologously expressed phytoene desaturase CRTI in the transformants was demonstrated by enzymic assays. The transformants acquired very strong resistance toward the bleaching herbicide norflurazon.     

Conserved Motif of CDK5RAP2 Mediates Its Localization to Centrosomes and the Golgi Complex

As the primary microtubule-organizing centers, centrosomes require γ-tubulin for microtubule nucleation and organization. Located in close vicinity to centrosomes, the Golgi complex is another microtubule-organizing organelle in interphase cells. CDK5RAP2 is a γ-tubulin complex-binding protein and functions in γ-tubulin attachment to centrosomes. In this study, we find that CDK5RAP2 localizes to the Golgi complex in an ATP- and centrosome-dependent manner and associates with Golgi membranes independently of microtubules. CDK5RAP2 contains a centrosome-targeting domain with its core region highly homologous to the Motif 2 (CM2) of centrosomin, a functionally related protein in Drosophila. This sequence, referred to as the CM2-like motif, is also conserved in related proteins in chicken and zebrafish. Therefore, CDK5RAP2 may undertake a conserved mechanism for centrosomal localization. Using a mutational approach, we demonstrate that the CM2-like motif plays a crucial role in the centrosomal and Golgi localization of CDK5RAP2. Furthermore, the CM2-like motif is essential for the association of the centrosome-targeting domain to pericentrin and AKAP450. The binding with pericentrin is required for the centrosomal and Golgi localization of CDK5RAP2, whereas the binding with AKAP450 is required for the Golgi localization. Although the CM2-like motif possesses the activity of Ca²⁺-independent calmodulin binding, binding of calmodulin to this sequence is dispensable for centrosomal and Golgi association. Altogether, CDK5RAP2 may represent a novel mechanism for centrosomal and Golgi localization.     

Role of RANKL (TNFSF11)-Dependent Osteopetrosis in the Dental Phenotype of Msx2 Null Mutant Mice

The MSX2 homeoprotein is implicated in all aspects of craniofacial skeletal development. During postnatal growth, MSX2 is expressed in all cells involved in mineralized tissue formation and plays a role in their differentiation and function. Msx2 null (Msx2 ^−/−) mice display complex craniofacial skeleton abnormalities with bone and tooth defects. A moderate form osteopetrotic phenotype is observed, along with decreased expression of RANKL (TNFSF11), the main osteoclast-differentiating factor. In order to elucidate the role of such an osteopetrosis in the Msx2 ^−/− mouse dental phenotype, a bone resorption rescue was performed by mating Msx2 ^−/− mice with a transgenic mouse line overexpressing Rank (Tnfrsf11a). Msx2 ^−/− Rank^Tg mice had significant improvement in the molar phenotype, while incisor epithelium defects were exacerbated in the enamel area, with formation of massive osteolytic tumors. Although compensation for RANKL loss of function could have potential as a therapy for osteopetrosis, but in Msx2 ^−/− mice, this approach via RANK overexpression in monocyte-derived lineages, amplified latent epithelial tumor development in the peculiar continuously growing incisor.     

ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3 Are Essential for COPI Coat Assembly on the Golgi Membrane of Living Cells

Coat protein complex I (COPI) vesicles play a central role in the recycling of proteins in the early secretory pathway and transport of proteins within the Golgi stack. Vesicle formation is initiated by the exchange of GDP for GTP on ARF1 (ADP-ribosylation factor 1), which, in turn, recruits the coat protein coatomer to the membrane for selection of cargo and membrane deformation. ARFGAP1 (ARF1 GTPase-activating protein 1) regulates the dynamic cycling of ARF1 on the membrane that results in both cargo concentration and uncoating for the generation of a fusion-competent vesicle. Two human orthologues of the yeast ARFGAP Glo3p, termed ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3, have been demonstrated to be present on COPI vesicles generated in vitro in the presence of guanosine 5′-3-O-(thio)triphosphate. Here, we investigate the function of these two proteins in living cells and compare it with that of ARFGAP1. We find that ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3 follow the dynamic behavior of coatomer upon stimulation of vesicle budding in vivo more closely than does ARFGAP1. Electron microscopy of ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3 knockdowns indicated Golgi unstacking and cisternal shortening similarly to conditions where vesicle uncoating was blocked. Furthermore, the knockdown of both ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3 prevents proper assembly of the COPI coat lattice for which ARFGAP1 does not seem to play a major role. This suggests that ARFGAP2 and ARFGAP3 are key components of the COPI coat lattice and are necessary for proper vesicle formation.     

The Tomato odorless-2 Mutant Is Defective in Trichome-Based Production of Diverse Specialized Metabolites and Broad-Spectrum Resistance to Insect Herbivores

Glandular secreting trichomes of cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) produce a wide array of volatile and nonvolatile specialized metabolites. Many of these compounds contribute to the characteristic aroma of tomato foliage and constitute a key part of the language by which plants communicate with other organisms in natural environments. Here, we describe a novel recessive mutation called odorless-2 (od-2) that was identified on the basis of an altered leaf-aroma phenotype. od-2 plants exhibit pleiotrophic phenotypes, including alterations in the morphology, density, and chemical composition of glandular trichomes. Type VI glandular trichomes isolated from od-2 leaves accumulate only trace levels of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and flavonoids. Other foliar defensive compounds, including acyl sugars, glycoalkaloids, and jasmonate-regulated proteinase inhibitors, are produced in od-2 leaves. Growth of od-2 plants under natural field conditions showed that the mutant is highly susceptible to attack by an indigenous flea beetle, Epitrix cucumeris, and the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. The increased susceptibility of od-2 plants to Colorado potato beetle larvae and to the solanaceous specialist Manduca sexta was verified in no-choice bioassays. These findings indicate that Od-2 is essential for the synthesis of diverse trichome-borne compounds and further suggest that these compounds influence host plant selection and herbivore community composition under natural conditions.The plant epidermal surface provides a formidable protective barrier to invasion by pathogens and arthropod herbivores. Hair-like protuberances, called trichomes, are among the most conspicuous defense-related structures on the aerial epidermis of leaves, stems, and floral organs. Trichomes are typically classified morphologically as being either nonglandular or glandular. Nonglandular trichomes physically impede the movement of small arthropod herbivores on the plant surface. Molecular and ecological studies indicate that trichome density is both a highly adaptive and a functionally important trait for resistance to herbivory (Kennedy, 2003; Kivimaki et al., 2007). In-depth knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that control trichome development in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), which produces unicellular nonglandular trichomes, has provided significant insight into the genetic basis of variation in trichome habit (Marks, 1997; Karkkainen and Agren, 2002; Yoshida et al., 2009).In contrast to our understanding of nonglandular trichomes, much less is known about the development and ecological function of glandular trichomes, many of which are multicellular. These epidermal structures synthesize a diverse array of specialized (i.e. secondary) metabolites that exert toxic or repellent effects on myriad phytophagous animals (Kennedy, 2003; Shepherd et al., 2005; Schilmiller et al., 2008). Rupture of the cuticle upon insect contact releases gland contents, which can rapidly oxidize to form a sticky exudate that physically entraps small insects. Among the major classes of compounds involved in trichome-mediated resistance are terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and defensive proteins (Shepherd and Wagner, 2007; Schilmiller et al., 2008). Large-scale sequencing of ESTs isolated from purified glands has provided unprecedented insight into the biochemical pathways that operate in glandular trichomes (Lange et al., 2000; Aziz et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2008, 2009; Xie et al., 2008; Schilmiller et al., 2009a; Dai et al., 2010). Many key biosynthetic genes in these pathways have been identified and characterized (Iijima et al., 2004; Falara et al., 2008; Slocombe et al., 2008; Ben-Israel et al., 2009; Marks et al., 2009; Schilmiller et al., 2009a).Cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and its wild relatives produce several different types of nonglandular and glandular trichomes on aerial tissues (Luckwill, 1943; Kang et al., 2010). The chemical composition of glandular trichomes varies significantly within and between tomato species (Antonious, 2001; Schilmiller et al., 2008; Besser et al., 2009). Acyl sugars secreted by Solanum pennellii type IV trichomes provide effective resistance to a wide range of insects (Goffreda et al., 1990; Rodriguez et al., 1993; Juvik et al., 1994). Methyl ketone and sesquiterpene derivatives produced in type VI glands of Solanum habrochaites also exert powerful toxic and repellent effects on numerous insect pests (Williams et al., 1980; Maluf et al., 2001; Antonious and Snyder, 2006). Recent studies indicate that trichomes are also an important component of induced anti-insect defenses that are regulated by the plant hormone jasmonate (JA). For example, the density of type VI trichomes on tomato leaves is regulated by the JA pathway (Li et al., 2004; Boughton et al., 2005; Peiffer et al., 2009). JA also plays a role in controlling the accumulation of defense-related terpenoids in type VI glands (Li et al., 2004; van Schie et al., 2007). Recent studies provide evidence that type VI trichomes accumulate JA and may function as sensors for detecting insect movement on the leaf surface (Peiffer et al., 2009). These collective observations highlight the importance of glandular trichomes in shaping plant-insect relations.Our current understanding of the role of trichomes in mediating S. lycopersicum interaction with arthropod herbivores comes mainly from insect bioassays performed under controlled laboratory conditions (Kennedy, 2003; Li et al., 2004; Bleeker et al., 2009; Peiffer et al., 2009; Kang et al., 2010). Much less is known about the ecological relevance of trichomes in tomato plants grown under more natural conditions in the field. Here, we report the characterization of a tomato mutant, odorless-2 (od-2), that was identified on the basis of an altered leaf-aroma phenotype. This mutant exhibits defects in the development and density of glandular trichomes. Detailed chemical analysis of isolated type VI glands showed that od-2 disrupts the production of diverse specialized metabolites, including volatile terpenes and flavonoids. Consistent with important ecological roles for these compounds in host plant selection and defense, we show that od-2 plants are highly susceptible to natural populations of insect herbivores. Our results suggest that trichome-based chemical defenses play a major role in the resistance of cultivated tomato to opportunistic herbivores and also influence herbivore community composition under natural conditions.     

在CHO细胞中表达具有高效成骨活性的BMP-2/7异源二聚体

PCR扩增BMP-2与BMP-7的编码基因, 利用重叠PCR以柔性肽(Gly4Ser)5编码序列将二者串连并克隆到质粒pIRESneo3上, 转染CHO-K1细胞得到混合稳定克隆。ELISA检测培养液中BMP-2/7异源二聚体蛋白的表达水平为230.75±13.34 ng/mL, 以此为条件培养基处理成骨细胞株MC3T3, 对照组为分别含有CHO-K1细胞及大肠杆菌表达的BMP-2同源二聚体以及PBS的条件培养基。结果发现碱性磷酸酶染色与茜素红染色差异明显, 定量RT-PCR显示分子指标OC、ALP、Runx2与Osx的转录水平明显增高(P<0.05), Luciferase报告基因检测BMP/Smad通路活性较对照组升高明显(P<0.05)。首次设计构建了BMP-2/7异源二聚体蛋白, 其成骨活性显著高于BMP-2同源二聚体。