Tyr61的芳香族侧链对稳定瘦素的结构至关重要

为了研究第61位Tyr（Tyr61）在瘦素（leptin）结构与功能中的作用,构建了2个瘦素突变体Y61F与Y61Q并对其进行了功能分析．Y61F突变体瘦素显示出与野生型瘦素相同的天然凝胶电泳迁移率及相似的折叠效率,而Y61Q突变体瘦素则显示出明显慢的电泳迁移率且较野生型瘦素更难于折叠．受体结合及免疫活性测定显示, Y61F突变体保留了野生型瘦素的大部分生物学活性,而Y61Q突变体仅保留了野生型瘦素16％的受体结合活性及30％的免疫活性．圆二色性分析及二级结构估算表明,Y61F突变体具有与野生型瘦素几乎一样的二级结构组成,而Y61Q突变体的结构则较野生型瘦素更为松散.本研究表明,Tyr61的芳香族侧链被包埋于分子内部的疏水区域中对稳定瘦素结构及其发挥生理功能至关重要,而Tyr61上的羟基在这一过程中并不起重要作用．     

凝乳酶原Cys45-Cys50二硫键功能的研究

凝乳酶原突变体Cys45Asp/Cys50Ser包含体溶解所需的温度、时间、pH条件均与野生型一样,而且其氧化再折叠行为与野生型类似,在同样的复性条件下最终都能获得正确折叠可活化的分子.这与缺失Cys250-Cys283二硫键的突变体大不相同,说明Cys45-Cys50二硫键对凝乳酶原正确折叠的贡献小于Cys250-Cys283二硫键,但这对二硫键的缺失使假凝乳酶的热稳定性显著下降,说明此二硫键在稳定酶的空间构象中起重要作用、另外,突变体Cys45Asp/Cys50Ser假凝乳酶的水解蛋白酶活性(P)与凝乳活性(C)均较野生型低,但是其C/P值比野生型高1倍.     

玉米过氧化物还原蛋白BAS1的原核表达及其功能研究

植物过氧化物还原蛋白BAS1是巯基依赖的过氧化物酶,通过催化的Cys残基还原过氧化氢,依赖NADPH的叶绿体硫氧还蛋白还原酶保持BAS1的还原态。玉米含有两种BAS1:2-Cys PrxA和2-Cys PrxB。利用RT-PCR方法从玉米幼叶中克隆了编码成熟2-Cys PrxA的基因,并将蛋白Cys34残基突变成Ser34。SDS-PAGE显示纯化的野生型和突变体蛋白为一条主带,分子量约为23kDa;体外蛋白结合实验表明纯化的叶绿体硫氧还蛋白还原酶通过分子间二硫键结合纯化的2Cys PrxA的C34S突变体,非还原SDS-PAGE显示纯化的野生型2Cys PrxA含有分子间二硫键组成的二体,而纯化的C34S突变体呈现单体,巯基专一性标记化合物AMS修饰及活性分析表明纯化的BAS1还原态是催化还原过氧化氢所所必须的,它由硫氧还蛋白还原酶及其辅酶NADPH所催化。     

A7—B7二硫键缺失对胰岛素原重折叠及结构的影响

为研究A7 B7二硫键在胰岛素原结构和折叠中的作用 ,构建了A7 B7二硫键缺失的胰岛素原突变体 ,研究了其与野生型胰岛素原在体外重折叠产率、自由巯基氧化速度、CD谱、受体及抗体结合活性 ,以及对胰蛋白酶酶切敏感性的差别。结果表明 ,A7 B7二硫键缺失可导致胰岛素原α 螺旋明显减少以及对胰蛋白酶的酶切敏感性显著增加 ,其对胰岛素原结构的影响主要导致了受体结合活性的大幅度降低。突变体在体外重折叠 1h后巯基氧化速率较野生型明显减慢 ,但其最终折叠产率与野生型相当。由此提出一个胰岛素原折叠的可能途径 ,即A链链内二硫键最先形成 ,然后是两对链间二硫键。且A2 0 B19二硫键比A7 B7二硫键很可能先形成 ,在折叠中更重要。     

Thermobifida fusca角质酶突变体D204C/E253C高效可溶表达及其应用

Thermobifida fusca角质酶突变体D204C/E253C是通过在野生型角质酶中引入二硫键获得的热稳定性突变体.由于二硫键的引入,导致突变体D204C/E253C在表达过程中,易错误折叠形成大量包涵体,可溶表达比率极低.这极大地限制了其发酵制备以及在PET纤维改性中的应用.为了加强突变体D204C/E253C的可溶表达,本研究将突变体D204C/E253C和周质蛋白二硫键氧化还原酶DsbC在大肠杆菌突变株Es-cherichia coli Origami B(DE3)中共表达,来异构化异常的二硫键.实验结果表明,共表达的角质酶突变体D204C/E253C正常折叠表达,酶活为61 U/mL,是非共表达的6.8倍;共表达的突变体D204C/E253C在80℃的半衰期可达16 h,能够在80℃对PET纤维进行改性.本研究通过与分子伴侣蛋白DsbC在大肠杆菌突变株E.coli Origami B(DE3)中的共表达,实现角质酶突变体D204C/E253C的高效可溶表达,为大规模工业应用提供了一定的理论基础.     

大肠杆菌L-酒石酸脱氢酶β亚基体外分子交联

为证明高音等提出的蛋白质交联三步假说,通过PCR技术扩增大肠杆菌L-酒石酸脱氢酶β亚基（L—tartrate dehydratase beta subunit,TtdB）野生型与Cys／Ser突变型目的基因,构建带6×His标签的诱导型表达载体pTrcHisC-TtdB。重组蛋白以包含体形式存在,应用TALON固定化金属亲和树脂（Immobilized metal affinity chromatography,IMAC）以变性的方法纯化,通过分步透析逐步去除变性利的方法复性,复性率可达70％。将复性后的两种蛋白通过热诱导去折叠和氧化重折叠方法进行体外蛋白质分子交联实验。SDS—PAGE分析表明：野生型TtdB在其变性的临界温度反应时,出现交联二聚体和多聚体;在氧化重折叠后SDS—PAGE前加入100mmol／LDTT时,交联强度明显减弱。这种DTT打不开的交联即为异肽键交联;若在其氧化重折叠反应液中加入DTT则没有任何交联。突变型TtdB在与野生型TtdB相同的热诱导去折叠条件下,完全没有二聚体和多聚体的形成。这说明分子间二硫键的形成能促进随后分子间异肽键的形成。     

定点突变引入二硫键提高华根霉脂肪酶热稳定性的研究

拟对来源于华根霉(Rhizopus chinensis)的脂肪酶r27RCL进行二硫键的构建,从而提高该酶的热稳定性。利用二硫键构建软件Disulfide by Design 2. 0预测突变位点(T201),对野生型脂肪酶r27RCL进行定点突变。借助于毕赤酵母表达系统,对脂肪酶野生型r27RCL及突变体r27RCLT201C进行异源表达,并对其酶学性质进行研究和比较。热稳定性实验显示突变体r27RCL-T201C在60℃处理25 min后剩余酶活较野生型提高了17. 6%。此外,突变体的pH稳定性也较野生型有所提高。对脂肪酶r27RCL进行二硫键的构建有助于提高该酶热稳定性,使其能更有效地应用于工业生产。     

类胰岛素生长因子-1的C结构域不影响胰岛素二硫键的热力学稳定性

胰岛素和类胰岛素生长因子-1(IGF-1)都属于胰岛素超家族,两者不但一级、三级结构有较高的同源性,而且生理功能也有少量交叉.然而两者的折叠行为却有很大的差别：胰岛素及其重组前体(PIP)只折叠成一种热力学稳定的二硫键配对,而IGF-1却折叠成两种热力学稳定的二硫键异构体.为了了解两者折叠行为差异的分子机制,制备了由胰岛素的A,B链和IGF-1的C结构域构成的单链杂交分子——[B10Glu]Ins/IGF-1(C),研究了该杂交分子二硫键的热力学稳定性以及它在含有少量巯基试剂的变性剂中的解折叠程度,同时还纯化了该杂交分子一种主要的非天然二硫键异构体,并研究了它的再折叠情况. 观察到IGF-1中C结构域的引入并未改变胰岛素分子的折叠热力学,但是影响了折叠的动力学过程.     

核苷二磷酸激酶A的定点突变及C4S突变体的制备和活性研究

目的:对核苷二磷酸激酶A(NDPK-A)二硫键异构的关键残基C4进行定点突变,构建、表达并纯化C4S突变体,测定其磷酸转移酶活性和DNase活性,研究二硫键异构对NDPK-A活性的影响。方法:以pBV220-nm23-H1质粒作为模板,通过设计合适的引物对NDPK-A进行定点突变,将第4位半胱氨酸突变为丝氨酸,构建NDPK-AC4S突变体;在大肠杆菌BL21中表达,DEAE-sepharose Fas tFlow与Cibacron Blue 3GA Sepharose CL-4B纯化目的蛋白,获得均一重组蛋白,纯度达到98%;DNA序列测定及重组蛋白的肽质量指纹图谱(PMF)分析均证明构建正确突变体;高效液相色谱法(HPLC)与DNA消化法分别测定野生型NDPK-A与C4S突变体的磷酸转移酶活性与DNase活性差异。结果:NDPK-AC4S突变体的磷酸基转移酶与DNase酶活性均高于野生型NDPK-A。结论:NDPK-A缺失二硫键后,活性增高。NDPK-A形成链内二硫键可能是其活性负调控模式之一。     

Conformational analysis of intermediates involved in the in vitro folding pathways of recombinant human macrophage colony stimulating factor beta by sulfhydryl group trapping and hydrogen/deuterium pulsed labeling

In vitro oxidative folding of reduced recombinant human macrophage colony stimulating factor beta (rhm-CSFbeta) involves two major events: disulfide isomerization in the monomeric intermediates and disulfide-mediated dimerization. Kinetic analysis of rhm-CSFbeta folding indicated that monomer isomerization is slower than dimerization and is, in fact, the rate-determining step. A time-dependent determination of the number of free cysteines remaining was made after refolding commence. The folding intermediates revealed that rhm-CSFbeta folds systematically, forming disulfide bonds via multiple pathways. Mass spectrometric evidence indicates that native as well as non-native intrasubunit disulfide bonds form in monomeric intermediates. Initial dimerization is assumed to involve formation of disulfide bonds, Cys 157/159-Cys' 157/159. Among six intrasubunit disulfide bonds, Cys 48-Cys 139 and Cys' 48-Cys' 139 are assumed to be the last to form, while Cys 31-Cys' 31 is the last intersubunit disulfide bond that forms. Conformational properties of the folding intermediates were probed by H/D exchange pulsed labeling, which showed the coexistence of noncompact dimeric and monomeric species at early stages of folding. As renaturation progresses, the noncompact dimer undergoes significant structural rearrangement, forming a native-like dimer while the monomer maintains a noncompact conformation.     

Formation of an active dimer during storage of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in aqueous solution.

The degradation products of recombinant human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (rhIL-1ra) formed during storage at 30 degrees C in aqueous solution were characterized. Cationic exchange chromatography of the stored sample showed two major, new peaks eluting before (P1) and after (L2) the native protein, which were interconvertible. Size-exclusion chromatography and electrophoresis documented that both the P1 and L2 fractions were irreversible dimers, formed by noncovalent interactions. A competition assay with interleukin-1 indicated that on a per monomer basis the P1 and L2 dimers retained about two-thirds of the activity of the native monomer. Infrared and far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopies showed that only minor alterations in secondary structure arose upon the formation of the P1 dimer. However, alteration in the near-UV circular dichroism spectrum suggested the presence of disulfide bonds in the P1 dimer, which are absent in the native protein. Mass spectroscopy and tryptic mapping, before and after carboxymethylation, demonstrated that the P1 dimer contained an intramolecular disulfide bond between Cys-66 and Cys-69. Although conversion of native protein to the P1 dimer was irreversible in buffer alone, the native monomer could be regained by denaturing the P1 dimer with guanidine hydrochloride and renaturing it by dialysis, suggesting that the intramolecular disulfide bond does not interfere with refolding. Analysis of the time course of P1 formation during storage at 30 degrees C indicated that the process followed first-order, and not second-order, kinetics, suggesting that the rate-limiting step was not dimerization. It is proposed that a conformational change in the monomer is the rate-limiting step in the formation of the P1 dimer degradation product. Sucrose stabilized the native monomer against this process. This result can be explained by the general stabilization mechanism for this additive, which is due to its preferential exclusion from the protein surface.     

Apple four in human blood coagulation factor XI mediates dimer formation.

Human blood coagulation factor XI is a dimer composed of two identical subunits. Each subunit contains four apple domains as tandem repeats followed by a serine protease region. A disulfide bridge between Cys321 of each fourth apple domain links the subunits together. The role of Cys321 in the dimerization of factor XI was examined by mutagenesis followed by expression of its cDNA in baby hamster kidney cells. The recombinant proteins were then purified from the tissue culture medium and shown to have full biological activity. Normal recombinant factor XI was secreted as a dimer as determined by SDS-PAGE, while recombinant factor XI-Cys321 Ser migrated as a monomer under these conditions. Gel filtration studies, however, revealed that each protein existed as a dimer under native conditions, indicating that the disulfide bond between Cys321 of each factor XI monomer was not necessary for dimer formation. The fourth apple domain (apple4) of factor XI was then introduced into tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) to investigate its role in the dimerization of other polypeptide chains. The fusion protein, containing apple4 (apple4-tPA), formed dimers as detected by SDS-PAGE and gel filtration. Furthermore, dimerization was specific to apple4, while apple3 had no effect on dimerization. These data further indicated that the apple4 domain of factor XI mediates dimerization of the two subunits and the interchain disulfide bond involving Cys321 was not essential for dimer formation.     

Salt-resistant homodimeric bactenecin, a cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide

The cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide bactenecin is a beta-hairpin molecule with a single disulfide bond and broad antimicrobial activity. The proform of bactenecin exists as a dimer, however, and it has been proposed that bactenecin is released as a dimer in vivo, although there has been little study of the dimeric form of bactenecin. To investigate the effect of bactenecin dimerization on its biological activity, we characterized the dimer's effect on phospholipid membranes, the kinetics of its bactericidal activity, and its salt sensitivity. We initially synthesized two bactenecin dimers (antiparallel and parallel) and two monomers (beta-hairpin and linear). Under oxidative folding conditions, reduced linear bactenecin preferentially folded into a dimer forming a ladder-like structure via intermolecular disulfide bonding. As compared to the monomer, the dimer had a greater ability to induce lysis of lipid bilayers and was more rapidly bactericidal. Interestingly, the dimer retained antimicrobial activity at physiological salt concentrations (150 mm NaCl), although the monomer was inactivated. This salt resistance was also seen with bactenecin dimer containing one intermolecular disulfide bond, and the bactenecin dimer appears to undergo multimeric oligomerization at high salt concentrations. Overall, dimeric bactenecin shows potent and rapid antimicrobial activity, and resists salt-induced inactivation under physiological conditions through condensation and oligomerization. These characteristics shed light on the features that a peptide would need to serve as an effective therapeutic agent.     

Cloning, expression and interaction of human T-cell receptors with the bacterial superantigen SSA.

Superantigens (SAgs) are a class of disease-causing and immunostimulatory proteins of bacterial or viral origin that activate a large number of T-cells through interaction with the Vbeta domain of T-cell receptors (TCRs). In this study, recombinant TCR beta chains were constructed with human variable domains Vbeta5.2, Vbeta1 and Vbeta2.1, expressed as inclusion bodies, refolded and purified. The Streptococcus pyogenes SAg SSA-1 was cloned and expressed as a soluble periplasmic protein. SSA-1 was obtained both as a monomer and a dimer that has an intermolecular disulfide bond. We analyzed the biological activity of the recombinant SAgs by proliferation assays. The results suggest that SSA dimerization occludes the TCR interaction site. Naturally occurring SSA dimerization was also observed in supernatants of S. pyogenes isolates. An SSA mutant [SSA(C26S)] was produced to eliminate the Cys responsible for dimerization. Affinity assays using a resonant biosensor showed that both the mutant and monomeric wild type SSA have affinity for human Vbeta5.2 and Vbeta1 with Kd of 9-11 microm with a fast kass and a moderately fast kdiss. In spite of the reported stimulation of Vbeta2.1 bearing T-cells by SSA, we observed no measurable interaction.     

The isocitrate dehydrogenase kinase/phosphatase from Escherichia coli is highly sensitive to in-vitro oxidative conditions role of cysteine67 and cysteine108 in the formation of a disulfide-bonded homodimer.

Isocitrate dehydrogenase kinase/phosphatase (IDHK/P) is a homodimeric enzyme which controls the oxidative metabolism of Escherichia coli, and exibits a high intrinsic ATPase activity. When subjected to electrophoresis under nonreducing conditions, the purified enzyme migrates partially as a dimer. The proportion of the dimer over the monomer is greatly increased by treatment with cupric 1,10 phenanthrolinate or 5,5'-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid), and fully reversed by dithiothreitol, indicating that covalent dimerization is produced by a disulfide bond. To identify the residue(s) involved in this intermolecular disulfide-bond, each of the eight cysteines of the enzyme was individually mutated into a serine. It was found that, under nonreducing conditions, the electrophoretic patterns of all corresponding mutants are identical to that of the wild-type, except for the Cys67-->Ser which migrates exclusively as a monomer and for the Cys108-->Ser which migrates preferentially as a dimer. Furthermore, in contrast to the wild-type enzyme and all the other mutants, the Cys67-->Ser mutant still migrates as a monomer after treatment with cupric 1,10 phenanthrolinate. This result indicates that the intermolecular disulfide bond involves only Cys67 in each IDHK/P wild-type monomer. This was further supported by mass spectrum analysis of the tryptic peptides derived from either the cupric 1,10 phenanthrolinate-treated wild-type enzyme or the native Cys108-->Ser mutant, which show that they both contain a Cys67-Cys67 disulfide bond. Moreover, both the cupric 1,10 phenanthrolinate-treated wild-type enzyme and the native Cys108-->Ser mutant contain another disulfide bond between Cys356 and Cys480. Previous results have shown that this additional Cys356-Cys480 disulfide bond is intramolecular [Oudot, C., Jault, J.-M., Jaquinod, M., Negre, D., Prost, J.-F., Cozzone, A.J. & Cortay, J.-C. (1998) Eur. J. Biochem. 258, 579-585].     

Sml1p is a dimer in solution: characterization of denaturation and renaturation of recombinant Sml1p

Sml1p is a small 104-amino acid protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae that binds to the large subunit (Rnr1p) of the ribonucleotide reductase complex (RNR) and inhibits its activity. During DNA damage, S phase, or both, RNR activity must be tightly regulated, since failure to control the cellular level of dNTP pools may lead to genetic abnormalities, such as genome rearrangements, or even cell death. Structural characterization of Sml1p is an important step in understanding the regulation of RNR. Until now the oligomeric state of Sml1p was unknown. Mass spectrometric analysis of wild-type Sml1p revealed an intermolecular disulfide bond involving the cysteine residue at position 14 of the primary sequence. To determine whether disulfide bonding is essential for Sml1p oligomerization, we mutated the Cys14 to serine. Sedimentation equilibrium measurements in the analytical ultracentrifuge show that both wild-type and C14S Sml1p exist as dimers in solution, indicating that the dimerization is not a result of a disulfide bond. Further studies of several truncated Sml1p mutants revealed that the N-terminal 8-20 residues are responsible for dimerization. Unfolding/refolding studies of wild-type and C14S Sml1p reveal that both proteins refold reversibly and have almost identical unfolding/refolding profiles. It appears that Sml1p is a two-domain protein where the N-terminus is responsible for dimerization and the C-terminus for binding and inhibiting Rnr1p activity.     

H2O2-induced intermolecular disulfide bond formation between receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases

Receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase alpha (RPTPalpha) belongs to the subfamily of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatases that are characterized by two catalytic domains of which only the membrane-proximal one (D1) exhibits appreciable catalytic activity. The C-terminal catalytic domain (D2) regulates RPTPalpha catalytic activity by controlling rotational coupling within RPTPalpha dimers. RPTPalpha-D2 changes conformation and thereby rotational coupling within RPTPalpha dimers in response to changes in the cellular redox state. Here we report a decrease in motility of RPTPalpha from cells treated with H2O2 on non-reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels to a position that corresponds to RPTPalpha dimers, indicating intermolecular disulfide bond formation. Using mutants of all individual cysteines in RPTPalpha and constructs encoding the individual protein-tyrosine phosphatase domains, we located the intermolecular disulfide bond to the catalytic Cys-723 in D2. Disulfide bond formation and dimer stabilization showed similar levels of concentration and time dependence. However, treatment of lysates with dithiothreitol abolished intermolecular disulfide bonds but not stable dimer formation. Intermolecular disulfide bond formation and rotational coupling were also found using a chimera of the extracellular domain of RPTPalpha fused to the transmembrane and intracellular domain of the leukocyte common antigen-related protein (LAR). These results suggest that H2O2 treatment leads to oxidation of the catalytic Cys in D2, which then rapidly forms a disulfide bond with the D2 catalytic Cys of the dyad-related monomer, rendering an inactive RPTP dimer. Recovery from oxidative stress first leads to the reduction of the disulfide bond followed by a slower refolding of the protein to the active conformation.     

Effect of the central disulfide bond on the unfolding behavior of elongation factor Ts homodimer from Thermus thermophilus

Functionally active elongation factor Ts (EF-Ts) from Thermus thermophilus forms a homodimer. The dimerization interface of EF-Ts is composed of two antiparallel beta-sheets that can be connected by an intermolecular disulfide bond. The stability of EF-Ts from T. thermophilus in the presence and absence of the intermolecular disulfide bond was studied by differential scanning calorimetry and circular dichroism. The ratio of the van't Hoff and calorimetric enthalpies, delta H(vH)/delta H(cal), indicates that EF-Ts undergoes thermal unfolding as a dimer independently of the presence or absence of the disulfide bond. This can be concluded from (1) the presence of residual secondary structure above the thermal transition temperature, (2) the absence of concentration dependence, which would be expected for dissociation of the dimer prior to unfolding of the monomers, and (3) a relatively low heat capacity change (delta Cp) upon unfolding. The retained dimeric structure of the thermally denatured state allowed for the determination of the effect of the intermolecular disulfide bond on the conformational stability of EF-Ts, which is deltadelta G(S-S,SH HS) = 10.5 kJ/mol per monomer at 72.5 degrees C. The possible physiological implications of the dimeric EF-Ts structure and of the intersubunit disulfide bond for the extreme conformational stability of proteins in thermophiles are discussed.     

Involvement of surface cysteines in activity and multimer formation of thimet oligopeptidase

Thimet oligopeptidase is a metalloenzyme involved in regulating neuropeptide processing. Three cysteine residues (246, 248, 253) are known to be involved in thiol activation of the enzyme. In contrast to the wild-type enzyme, the triple mutant (C246S/C248S/C253S) displays increased activity in the absence of dithiothreitol. Dimers, purportedly formed through cysteines 246, 248 and 253, have been thought to be inactive. However, analysis of the triple mutant by native gel electrophoresis reveals the existence of dimers and multimers, implying that oligomer formation is mediated by other cysteines, probably on the surface, and that some of these forms are enzymatically active. Isolation and characterization of iodoacetate-modified monomers and dimers of the triple mutant revealed that, indeed, certain dimeric forms of the enzyme are still fully active, whereas others show reduced activity. Cysteine residues potentially involved in dimerization were identified by modeling of thimet oliogopeptidase to its homolog, neurolysin. Five mutants were constructed; all contained the triple mutation C246S/C248S/C253S and additional substitutions. Substitutions at C46 or C682 and C687 prevented multimer formation and inhibited dimer formation. The C46S mutant had enzymatic activity comparable to the parent triple mutant, whereas that of C682S/C687S was reduced. Thus, the location of intermolecular disulfide bonds, rather than their existence per se, is relevant to activity. Dimerization close to the N-terminus is detrimental to activity, whereas dimerization near the C-terminus has little effect. Altering disulfide bond formation is a potential regulatory factor in the cell owing to the varying oxidation states in subcellular compartments and the different compartmental locations and functions of the enzyme.