Substance P: Regional distribution and specific binding to synaptic membranes in rabbit central nervous system

Regional distribution of endogenous substance P and the specific [³H]substance P binding to synaptic membranes in rabbit central nervous system were investigated. The highest level of substance P was found in mesencephalon, followed by diencephalon, corpus striatum, hippocampus, pons-medulla and cortex. In spinal cord, much higher amount of substance P existed in dorsal half than in ventral half. Most of the substance P present in the areas enriched in substance P was located in crude mitochondrial P₂ fractions containing nerve endings. A saturable, high affinity, specific binding of [³H]substance P in synaptic membranes was found. The apparent maximal number of binding sites was 95.7 fmole/mg protein, while the dissociation constant (K_D) was 2.74 nM. The binding was displaced by substance P sequence fragments and the related peptides with relative potencies generally parallelizing their pharmacological activities. The distribution of such specific binding generally correlated with endogenous substance P. The presence of such binding sites for substance P in synaptic membranes suggests a possible role for substance P as a transmitter or modulator of neural function.     

Substance P and substance K receptor binding sites in the human gastrointestinal tract: Localization by autoradiography

Quantitative receptor autoradiography was used to localize and quantify the distribution of binding sites for ¹²⁵I-radiolabeled substance P (SP), substance K (SK) and neuromedin K (NK) in the human GI tract using histologically normal tissue obtained from uninvolved margins of resections for carcinoma. The distribution of SP and SK binding sites is different for each gastrointestinal (GI) segment examined. Specific SP binding sites are expressed by arterioles and venules, myenteric plexus, external circular muscle, external longitudinal muscle, muscularis mucosa, epithelial cells of the mucosa, and the germinal centers of lymph nodules. SK binding sites are distributed in a pattern distinct from SP binding sites and are localized to the external circular muscle, external longitudinal muscle, and the muscularis mucosa. Binding sites for NK were not detected in any part of the human GI tract. These results demonstrate that: 1) surgical specimens from the human GI tract can be effectively processed for quantitative receptor autoradiography; 2) of the three mammalian tachykinins tested, SP and SK, but not NK binding sites are expressed in detectable levels in the human GI tract; 3) whereas SK receptor binding sites are expressed almost exclusively by smooth muscle, SP binding sites are expressed by smooth muscle cells, arterioles, venules, epithelial cells of the mucosa and cells associated with lymph nodules; and 4) both SP and SK binding sites expressed by smooth muscle are more stable than SP binding sites expressed by blood vessels, lymph nodules, and mucosal cells.     

Action of the newly discovered mammalian tachykinins, substance K and neuromedin K, on gastroduodenal motility of anesthetized dogs

The present experiments examined the local effects of two new mammalian tachykinins isolated from porcine spinal cord, substance K and neuromedin K, on gastroduodenal motility of anesthetized dogs. Tachykinins were injected through the gastroepiploic and cranial pancreaticoduodenal arteries at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 ng/ml. Substance K, neuromedin K and substance P increased gastroduodenal smooth muscle contractions in a dose-dependent manner. The contractile response of the gastric antrum to newly discovered tachykinins was not as long-lasting as that to substance P. The potencies of various tachykinins on contractile responses showed the following rank order of potencies: physalaemin = eledoisin = substance P greater than substance K = neuromedin K in gastric smooth muscle; physalaemin = substance P = eledoisin greater than substance K = neuromedin K in the duodenal smooth muscle. Administration of atropine (100-200 micrograms/kg) inhibited the effect of tachykinins both in the gastric antrum and in the proximal duodenum. These results indicate that substance K and neuromedin K could act as transmitters or as modulators of neuronal activity influencing gastroduodenal motility.     

A novel bioassay for the NK-2 neurokinin receptor: the guinea pig gallbladder

Although three neurokinin receptors (NK-1, NK-2, NK-3) have been identified by radioligand binding assays, only the NK-1 and NK-3 types have been found in smooth muscle bioassays. In this study, evidence is presented demonstrating functional NK-2 type receptors in the guinea pig gallbladder (GPGB). The potencies of the following neurokinins were determined in the GPGB and the guinea pig ileum (GPI): substance P (SP), physalaemin (PH), eledoisin (EL), substance K (SK) and kassinin (KA). ED50 values were determined by linear regression analysis of the dose-related increases in the force generated by each peptide. In the GPI, the rank order of potency was SP = PH = EL greater than SK = KA, indicating NK-1 selectivity. In the GPGB, the relative potencies were SK greater than KA greater than EL much greater than PH greater than SP, which is similar to that reported for the NK-2 receptor in radioligand binding assays. These findings demonstrate the NK-2 receptor tissue selectivity of the GPGB.     

Are there subtypes of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor?

We have compared the properties of the [3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3-binding sites from a number of tissues in an attempt to determine if heterogeneity exists within the Ins(1,4,5)P3-receptor family. The binding of Ins(1,4,5)P3 was characterized in detail by using membranes prepared from human uterine smooth muscle and bovine adrenal cortex. Ins(1,4,5)P3 exhibited an approx. 5 times greater affinity for the binding site in adrenal cortex (KD = 9.81 +/- 1.92 nM) compared with uterine smooth muscle (KD = 37.1 +/- 1.8 nM). The binding was dependent on pH in both tissues, with a maximum at pH 8.3; at this pH various inositol phosphates and nucleotides competed for the binding sites with similar potencies on both tissues. However, the binding of Ins(1,4,5)P3 to the uterine smooth-muscle membranes was Ca2(+)-sensitive, whereas that to the bovine adrenal cortex was not; furthermore, heparin displaced the binding of Ins(1,4,5)P3 in the uterus with an IC50 value (concn. of displacer giving 50% inhibition of specific binding) of 3.9 micrograms/ml (2.5, 6.4; lower, upper range), compared with a value of 22 (13, 30) micrograms/ml in adrenal cortex. In view of the ability of Ins(1,4,5)P3 and heparin to distinguish between these binding sites, their effect on other tissues was examined. Ins(1,4,5)P3 showed a similar affinity for receptors located in the bovine cerebellum to those in the bovine adrenal cortex, but heparin displaced Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding with a 5-fold greater affinity from the cerebellum. Ins(1,4,5)P3 had a 2-fold greater affinity for its receptor with human platelets, as compared with human uterus, but heparin was unable to distinguish between these sites. In guinea-pig ileum, Ins(1,4,5)P3 displayed a similar affinity for the receptors in the longitudinal muscle compared with the circular muscle, but heparin could distinguish between these sites. These data show that small differences exist between tissues, but no clear picture is apparent. It is possible that these results reflect tissue-dependent factors such as phosphorylation, the presence of calmedin etc., rather than the presence of receptor subtypes or species difference.     

Further delineation of the two binding sites (R*(n)) associated with tachykinin neurokinin-1 receptors using [3-Prolinomethionine(11)]SP analogues.

Two binding sites are associated with neurokinin-1 substance P receptors in both transfected cells and mammalian tissues. To further delineate the interactions between the crucial C-terminal methionine of substance P and these two binding sites, we have incorporated newly designed constrained methionines, i.e. (2S, 3S)- and (2S,3R)-prolinomethionines. The potencies of these C terminus-modified SP analogues to bind both sites and to activate phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and cAMP formation have been measured, together with those of their corresponding sulfoxides and sulfones. The molecular nature of these two binding sites and their selective coupling to effector signaling pathways are discussed in the light of current models of receptor activation. The less abundant binding site is coupled to G(q/11) proteins, whereas the most abundant one interacts with G(s) proteins in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with human neurokinin-1 receptors. The specific orientation of the C-terminal methionine side chain imposed by these constraints shows that macroscopically chi(1) and chi(2) angles of this crucial C-terminal residue are similar in both binding sites. However, slight but significant variations in the rotation around the Cgamma-S bond yield different either stabilizing or destabilizing interactions in the two binding sites. These results highlight the need of such constrained amino acids to probe subtle interactions in ligand-receptor complexes.     

High-affinity 3H-substance P binding to longitudinal muscle membranes of the guinea pig small intestine

The binding of 3H-substance P (3H-SP) to longitudinal muscle membranes of the guinea pig small intestine has been characterized. The binding of 3H-SP exhibited a high affinity (Kd = 0.5nM). It was saturable (Bmax = 2 fmoles/mg tissue), reversible, and temperature-dependent. Kinetic studies and competition of 3H-SP binding by unlabeled SP yielded Kd and Ki values, respectively, which were in good agreement with the Kd calculated from saturation studies. The binding of 3H-SP appeared to be dependent on the presence of divalent cations in the incubation buffer. It was displaced by SP and various analogs and fragments in the rank order of SP greater than SP-(2-11) = SP-(3-11) greater than Nle11- SP = physalaemin greater than SP-(4-11) greater than SP-(5-11) greater than eledoisin much greater than SP-(7-11). Our results indicate that 3H-SP binds in longitudinal muscle of the guinea pig small intestine to a biologically relevant receptor which in many respects resembles the SP receptor characterized in the brain and the salivary gland of the rat.     

Specific substance P binding sites in rat thymus and spleen: in vitro autoradiographic study

Substance P binding sites were localized in rat thymus and spleen by incubation of tissue sections with [125I]Bolton-Hunter substance P, [3H]Ultrofilm autoradiography with image analysis coupled to computerized microdensitometry and comparison with 125I standards. The tissue localization of the binding sites was determined with emulsion autoradiography. A single type of specific, saturable, high affinity binding sites was found associated with the vasculature in the medulla of the thymus and the marginal sinus of the spleen, with a Kd of 0.10 and 0.14 nM, respectively. Of all the unlabeled tachykinins tested (substance P, physalaemin, substance K, eledoisin, kassinin, and neuromedin K) substance P was the most potent inhibitor of [125I]Bolton-Hunter substance P binding, with an IC50 of approximately 0.5 nM, indicating the presence of substance P-P binding sites. Our results support the hypothesis of a role for substance P in the modulation of the immune system.     

Specific receptors for thromboxane A2 in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells of rat aorta

The specific binding site for thromboxane A2 (TXA2) was studied in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) of the rat aorta. [3H]SQ29,548, a potent and selective TXA2 receptor antagonist, displayed high-affinity and specificity, as well as saturable and displaceable binding to rat VSMC in culture. Scatchard analysis of equilibrium binding at 24 degrees C revealed a single class of binding sites with a Kd of 1.7 nM and a Bmax of 8.0 fmol/10(6) cells. A series of TXA2 receptor antagonists completely suppressed [3H]SQ29,548 binding to rat VSMC, and the rank order of their inhibitory potencies (Ki) correlated well with the potencies for suppression of the U46619-induced contraction of rat thoracic aorta. These results suggest that specific binding sites for [3H]SQ29,548 represent the TXA2 receptor in rat VSMC.     

Demonstration of two distinct tachykinin receptors in rat brain cortex

Eledoisin and substance P are members of a class of peptides termed tachykinins. They share a similar spectrum of biological activities but their relative potencies in various pharmacological assays differ. We have investigated whether there is more than one receptor for these tachykinins in rat brain cortex membranes. 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated eledoisin specifically binds to rat brain cortex membranes with high affinity. The binding is inhibited over 95% by unlabeled eledoisin (6.6 microM). Scatchard analysis of the binding of this ligand is curvilinear suggesting that there are two binding sites with KD values of 0.9 +/- 0.7 nM and 20 +/- 10 nM. We tested various analogs and fragments of substance P and eledoisin for their ability to inhibit the binding of 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated eledoisin and 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated substance P to these membranes. The following peptides are more potent as inhibitors of the 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated eledoisin binding site than of the 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated substance P binding site: nonradioactive Bolton Hunter-conjugated eledoisin (greater than 100-fold), eledoisin (12-fold), kassinin (22-fold), neuromedin K (greater than 58-fold), and pyroglutamyl substance P(6-11)hexapeptide (4-fold). In contrast, substance P (21-fold), physalaemin (8-fold), and substance P methyl ester (1200-fold) were more potent as inhibitors of 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated substance P binding. These results suggest that these two ligands may bind to distinct receptors. 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated substance P binds specifically to rat parotid cell receptors, but 125I-Bolton Hunter-conjugated eledoisin does not, indicating that parotid cells contain only one of the receptor subtypes. The cortex membrane binding of both ligands is stimulated by low concentrations of MnCl2 (ED50 = 0.05 mM) and is inhibited by guanylyl-5'-(beta, gamma-imido)diphosphate (IC50 = 0.5 microM).     

Binding of [125I]Bolton Hunter conjugated eledoisin to rat brain cortex membranes--evidence for two classes of tachykinin receptors in the mammalian central nervous system

[125I]Bolton Hunter conjugated eledoisin was prepared and purified by ion-paired reverse phase chromatography. The ligand binds to rat brain cortex membranes, and the binding is inhibited over 95% by unlabeled eledoisin (6.6 microM). The binding site appears to be distinct from the [125I]Bolton Hunter conjugated substance P receptor based on the relative potencies of substance P, eledoisin, kassinin, physalaemin and [pGlu]substance P (6-11) hexapeptide to displace the binding of these two ligands.     

Substance P binding sites in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the cat

Substance P binding sites in the nucleus tractus solitarius were visualized with receptor autoradiography using Bolton-Hunter [¹²⁵I]substance P. Substance P binding sites were found to have distinct patterns within the cat nucleus tractus solitarius. The majority of substance P binding sites were present in the medial, intermediate and the peripheral rim of the parvocellular subdivisions. Lower amounts of substance P binding sites were present in the commissural, ventrolateral, interstitial and dorsolateral subdivisions. No substance P binding sites were present in the central region of the parvocellular subdivision or the solitary tract. The localization of substance P binding sites in the nucleus tractus solitarius is very similar to the patterns of substance P immunoreactive fibers previously described for this region. Results of this study add further support for a functional role of substance P in synaptic circuits of the nucleus tractus solitarius.     

[3H]Neurokinin B and 125I-Bolton Hunter Eledoisin Label Identical Tachykinin Binding Sites in the Rat Brain

[3H]Neurokinin B ([3H]NKB) of high specific activity (75 Ci/mmol) was synthesized for study of its binding to crude synaptosomes from the rat cerebral cortex. The specific binding of [3H]NKB (75% of total binding) was temperature dependent, saturable, and reversible. Scatchard analyses and Hill plots showed the existence of a single population of noninteracting binding sites (KD = 4.3 nM; Bmax = 123 fmol/mg of protein). Competition studies indicated the following rank order of potencies among tachykinins: NKB greater than eledoisin (E) greater than kassinin greater than physalaemin greater than neurokinin A (NKA) greater than substance P (SP), a result suggesting that NKB might be the endogenous ligand for [3H]NKB binding sites. It is of interest that 127I-Bolton Hunter (BH) NKA (127I-BHNKA) was much more potent than NKA in inhibiting the specific binding of [3H]NKB, which raises certain questions concerning the use of 125I-BHNKA as a ligand for NKA binding sites in the brain. These results, as well as those obtained with different SP analogues, show a close similarity to those obtained previously with 125I-BHE binding to cortical synaptosomes. This suggested that the two ligands labeled identical binding sites. In addition, using either [3H]NKB or 125I-BHE as ligands, similar displacement curves were obtained with increasing concentrations of NKB and 127I-BHE. The similarity of the [3H]NKB and 125I-BHE binding sites was further confirmed by comparison of their localization on rat brain sections by autoradiography. The distribution of binding sites for [3H]NKB and 125I-BHE was identical throughout the brain, and the highest density of binding sites for the two ligands was found in layers IV and V of the cerebral cortex, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (magnocellular part), and the ventral tegmental area.     

Modulatory Role of Glutathione on μ-Opioid, Substance P/Neurokinin-1, and Kainic Acid Receptor Binding Sites

Reduced glutathione (L-gamma-glutamyl-L-cysteinylglycine; GSH) is an endogenous tripeptide involved in the formation and maintenance of protein thiol groups as well as in various detoxification reactions. Because multiple receptor types contain thiol groups or disulfide bridges, effects of GSH treatments on mu-opioid, neurokinin-1/substance P, and kainic acid receptor binding sites were investigated and compared with those produced by dithiothreitol (DTT), a potent synthetic reducing agent. GSH inhibited binding more potently than did DTT at all three receptor types in porcine striatal membrane homogenates as well as in CHAPS-solubilized preparations of the mu and neurokinin-1 sites. GSH-induced inhibitory effects were associated with decreases in maximal binding capacity (Bmax) without significant alteration in apparent affinity (KD). Cysteine, the functional moiety of GSH, mimicked GSH effects albeit with lower potencies, whereas oxidized glutathione had no effects at similar concentrations. In CHAPS-solubilized preparations, the combination of low concentrations of GSH and guanylylimidodiphosphate markedly decreased the Bmax values of the binding of [3H][D-Ala2,Gly-ol5]enkephalin and [3H]substance P. This GSH-mediated mechanism may be important to prevent cell overstimulation by accelerating receptor uncoupling, desensitization, and/or internalization. This is in keeping with purported roles of GSH related to the maintenance of cellular integrity.     

[3H]Threo-(±)-Methylphenidate Binding to 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylethylamine Uptake Sites in Corpus Striatum: Correlation with the Stimulant Properties of Ritalinic Acid Esters

Saturable and stereoselective binding sites for [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate were characterized in rat brain membranes. The highest density of [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate binding sites was found in the synaptosomal fraction of corpus striatum. Scatchard analysis revealed a single class of noninteracting binding sites with an apparent dissociation constant (KD) of 235 nM and a maximum number of binding sites (Bmax) of 13.4 pmol/mg protein. Saturable, high-affinity binding of [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate to striatal synaptosomal membranes was dependent on the presence of sodium ions. A good correlation (r = 0.88; p less than 0.001) was observed between the potencies of various psychotropic drugs in displacing [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate from these sites and their potencies as inhibitors of [3H]3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine ( [3H]dopamine) uptake into striatal synaptosomes. A good correlation (r = 0.85; p less than 0.001) was also observed between the potencies of a series of ritalinic acid esters in inhibiting [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate binding to striatal synaptosomal membranes and their potencies as motor stimulants in mice. These observations suggest that the binding sites for [3H]threo-(+/-)-methylphenidate described here are associated with a dopamine uptake or transport complex, and that these sites may mediate the motor stimulant properties of ritalinic acid esters such as methylphenidate.     

The specificity of angiotensin II receptor binding in rat brain

125I-angiotensin II (125I-AII) binding was examined in the hypothalamic-thalamic-septal-midbrain (HTSM) region of HLA-Wistar rats in the presence of CNS-active agents. Angiotensin I, II, and III and saralasin competed for 125 I-AII binding, whereas structurally unrelated peptides such as arginine and lysine vasopressin, oxytocin, LHRH, TRH, bradykinin, and substance P did not. In contrast, ACTH and neurotensin exhibited a weak, dose-dependent competition for 125 I-AII binding. The relative potencies of AII, AI, neurotensin and ACTH were 100:1:0.1:0.05, respectively. Neurotensin and ACTH competition was not additive with AII suggesting interaction at shared binding sites. Most importantly, a wide variety of other CNS active agents such as methyldopa, naloxone, catecholamines, clondidine, and reserpine, failed to inhibit 125 I-AII binding, thus further defining the specificity of the CNS AII receptor.     

Homologous desensitization of substance-P-induced inositol polyphosphate formation in rat parotid acinar cells.

Maximal concentrations of substance P and methacholine induced a rapid increase in [3H]inositol trisphosphate ([3H]IP3) formation. After about 1 min, the [3H]IP3 in the substance-P-treated cells ceased to increase further, whereas in the methacholine-treated cells [3H]IP3 continued to increase. Addition of methacholine to the substance-P-treated cells caused a rapid increase in [3H]IP3, whereas a second addition of a 10-fold excess of substance P had no effect. Pretreatment of cells with substance P, followed by removal of the substance P by washing, resulted in a decreased response to a second application of substance P. A similar protocol involving pretreatment with methacholine had no effect on subsequent responsiveness to substance P. Analysis of [3H]substance P binding to substance-P-treated cells indicated that the number of receptors for substance P was decreased, but the affinity of the receptors for substance P was unaffected. After substance P pretreatment, a prolonged incubation (2 h) restored responsiveness of the cells to substance P, measured as [3H]IP3 formation, and restored the number of binding sites to control values. These findings indicate that, in the rat parotid gland, substance P induces a homologous desensitization of its receptor, which involves a slowly reversible down-regulation or sequestration of substance-P-binding sites.     

Autoradiographic analysis of binding sites for 125I-Bolton-Hunter-substance P in the human eye.

Substance P is known to exert potent effects in peripheral tissues, and is thought to be important for ocular function. The mechanism of action of substance P in the human eye is not known. As a basis for biochemical characterization specific binding of 125I-Bolton-Hunter-substance P was demonstrated in the human eye using autoradiographic methods. Biochemical characterization on slide-mounted tissue preparations showed that binding was saturable with a KD of 0.27 +/- 0.1 nmol/l. Specific binding occurred at comparable autoradiographic densities to both human retina and choroid. Substance P and its carboxyterminal fragment, substance P(3-11), were shown to be highly potent in binding competition experiments against 125I-Bolton-Hunter-substance P. Similar concentrations of substance P(1-9), neurokinin A and neurokinin B failed to significantly alter specific binding of 125I-Bolton-Hunter-substance P. The results indicate expression of high affinity substance P binding sites in human retina and choroid.     

Characterization of ion movements and their relationship to muscarinic receptor binding and excitation-contraction coupling in guinea pig ileal longitudinal smooth muscle

The relationship between ion movements (sodium uptake and potassium release) and agonist-induced contractile responses or muscarinic receptor binding was investigated in the guinea pig ileal longitudinal muscle (GPLM). Sodium uptake and potassium release were agonist-dependent, concentration-dependent, and stereoselective, with the following rank order of maximum ion movement: muscarinic agonists greater than histamine greater than substance P = serotonin. Potassium depolarization did not initiate sodium uptake or potassium release. Sodium uptake was rapid and monophasic, preceding potassium release which was biphasic in nature. Full muscarinic agonists produced equal maximal increases in sodium uptake, while maximal potassium release varied for all muscarinic agonists and in addition differed from sodium uptake in the following ways: time course, stereoselectivity, sensitivity to calcium antagonists, modulation by the guanylyl nucleotide derivative, 5'-guanylylimidodiphosphate (Gpp(NH)p), and inhibition by muscarinic receptor blockade with benzilylcholine mustard. The calcium ionophores A23187 and ionomycin (SQ23377) did not produce any sodium uptake; A23187 but not ionomycin produced potassium release comparable to that evoked by muscarinic agonists. Ion movement in response to combinations of agonists were not additive. Muscarinic agonist binding as measured by competition for [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate ([3H]QNB) binding, was best described by multiple sites and was regulated by Gpp(NH)p. Excellent correlations were observed between the dissociation constants for binding and sodium uptake, potassium release, and contraction. The best correlations were those between the pharmacologic responses and the high affinity binding site in the absence, and the low affinity site in the presence, of Gpp(NH)p, respectively. Furthermore, the potencies of muscarinic agonists to evoke ion movements and to inhibit [3H]QNB binding were similar, and from one to two orders of magnitude less than those for contraction. It is suggested that contraction and potassium release were mediated by the high affinity, and sodium uptake by the low and average affinity muscarinic agonist binding sites, respectively. These findings suggest an agonist-activated receptor-effector coupling model in GPLM that leads to the activation of sodium uptake, potassium release, and subsequently, contraction.     

Specific [3H]propionyl-neuropeptide Y (NPY) binding in rabbit aortic membranes: comparisons with binding in rat brain and biological responses in rat vas deferens

The binding of biologically active [3H]propionyl-NPY to rabbit aortic membranes was specific and saturable. Scatchard analysis indicated a single class of binding sites with a Kd of 1.1 nM. The rank order of potencies for displacement of [3H]propionyl-NPY binding by NPY analogs in the aorta correlated with their potencies in displacing binding in brain and their activity in inhibiting contractions of the field-stimulated rat vas deferens. However, differences were noted in the absolute or relative potencies of other related polypeptides both in regards to aorta compared to brain NPY binding and NPY binding compared to activity in the vas deferens. Collectively, the results support proposals for heterogeneity of NPY receptors.