Searching behaviour of Encarsia formosa as mediated by colour and honeydew

The habitat- and host-searching behaviour of female Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was assessed using an airflow olfactometer and a filter paper test. Responses to different odour cues, colours, host-produced honeydew, non-host honeydew and single carbohydrates were determined. The parasitoid was not attracted to or arrested by odours emanating from clean tobacco leaves, tobacco leaves heavily infested with the host Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) and covered with honeydew, or honeydew alone. However, E. formosa females showed a significant response to green light transmitted through a tobacco leaf. The yellow part of the spectrum was partly responsible for this response. Thus, the long-range orientation is random with respect to the presence of hosts. Filter paper tests showed that the short-range searching behaviour is influenced by water soluble, non-volatile contact-kairomones contained in the host-produced honeydew. Contact with honeydew excreted by L3/L4 T. vaporariorum resulted in longer searching times than honeydew from adult T. vaporariorum or L3/L4 Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). No difference was found between the response to honeydew excreted by adult and L3/L4 B. tabaci. The parasitoids' response to honeydew was unaffected by the host plant on which the whiteflies had fed. Non-host honeydew and single carbohydrates also affected the searching behaviour of E. formosa but to a lower extent than host honeydew. The possible differences in the carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the honeydew excreted by different life-stages of T. vaporariorum and B. tabaci are discussed.     

Searching and oviposition behaviour of Amitus fuscipennis, a parasitoid of the greenhouse whitefly

Abstract: Amitus fuscipennis MacGown & Nebeker (Hym., Platygasteridae) is a parasitoid of the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hom., Aleyrodidae) on some crops as bean and snap bean (both Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Colombia. The searching and oviposition behaviour of A. fuscipennis was studied in the laboratory, using T. vaporariorum as a host on bean leaves. The parasitoid's basic search pathway consisted of walking, encountering the host, and drumming and probing it. While walking, the parasitoid stopped for short periods of time, partly to preen itself. Walking while searching comprised 61% of the adults' time budget and probing hosts represented 16%. After a host nymph was parasitized by A. fuscipennis , the parasitoid remained close by and continued searching for new hosts in the immediate vicinity. Such behaviour suggests area-restricted searching. The parasitoid preferred first instars of T. vaporariorum for oviposition, resulting in long developmental times. Amitus fuscipennis had a high percentage of host acceptance resulting in a high percentage parasitism (60%) of all encountered hosts. Amitus fuscipennis , on average, walked faster before an oviposition (1.4 mm/s) than other whitefly parasitoids. The implications of these findings for the control of T. vaporariorum are discussed.     

Co-development of Encarsia formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and the greenhouse whitefly,Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae): a histological examination

Using histological techniques, we have simultaneously examined the co-development of the Aphelinid parasitoid Encarsia formosa and its host the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Previously we have determined that regardless of the whitefly instar parasitized, parasitoid larvae would not molt to their final instar until the whitefly reaches its maximum dimensions. In unparasitized T. vaporariorum, this point in development corresponds to the initiation of the adult molt. In part, this study was conducted to determine the developmental state of parasitized whiteflies at the time they achieve their maximum dimensions. It was found that parasitized final instar T. vaporariorum do, in fact, undergo a final molt and that E. formosa larvae will not molt to their final instar until this has occurred. The timing of the final whitefly molt appears unaffected by parasitization. The commonly observed melanization of parasitized whiteflies appears to be a consequence of this molt. In addition, we have discovered that the adult wasp oviposits within the ventral ganglion of the whitefly, and that major organ systems of the whitefly persist very late into parasitoid development. We also report the presence of possible endosymbiotic bacteria residing in the fatbody of E. formosa.     

Host-parasite interactions between whiteflies and their parasitoids

There is relatively little information available concerning the physiological and biochemical interactions between whiteflies and their parasitoids. In this report, we describe interactions between aphelinid parasitoids and their aleyrodid hosts that we have observed in four host-parasite systems: Bemisia tabaci/Encarsia formosa, Trialeurodes vaporariorum/E. formosa, B. tabaci/Eretmocerus mundus, and T. lauri/Encarsia scapeata. In the absence of reported polydnavirus and teratocytes, these parasitoids probably inject and/or produce compounds that interfere with the host immune response and also manipulate host development to suit their own needs. In addition, parasitoids must coordinate their own development with that of their host. Although eggs are deposited under all four instars of B. tabaci, Eretmocerus larvae only penetrate 4th instar B. tabaci nymphs. A pre-penetrating E. mundus first instar was capable of inducing permanent developmental arrest in its host, and upon penetration stimulated its host to produce a capsule (epidermal in origin) in which the parasitoid larva developed. T. vaporariorum and B. tabaci parasitized by E. formosa initiated adult development, and, on occasion, produced abnormal adult wings and eyes. In these systems, the site of parasitoid oviposition depended on the host species, occurring within or pressing into the ventral ganglion in T. vaporariorum and at various locations in B. tabaci. E. formosa's final larval molt is cued by the initiation of adult development in its host. In the T. lauri-E. scapeata system, both the host whitefly and the female parasitoid diapause during most of the year, i.e., from June until the middle of February (T. lauri) or from May until the end of December (E. scapeata). It appears that the growth and development of the insects are directed by the appearance of new, young foliage on Arbutus andrachne, the host tree. When adult female parasitoids emerged in the spring, they laid unfertilized male-producing eggs in whiteflies containing a female parasitoid [autoparasitism (development of male larvae utilizing female parasitoid immatures for nutrition)]. Upon hatching, these male larvae did not diapause, but initiated development, and the adult males that emerged several weeks later mated with available females to produce the next generation of parasitoid females. Thus, the interactions that exist between whiteflies and their parasitoids are complex and can be quite diverse in the various host-parasitoid systems.     

Spectral efficiency of the glasshouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum and Encarsia formosa its hymenopteran parasitoid

Using the electroretinogram (ERG) technique the spectral efficiency of the compound eye of the glasshouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) and its main parasitoid Encarsia formosa (Gahan) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was measured at selected wavelengths between 340 nm and 670 nm. The form of the ERG for both T. vaporariorum and E. formosa was found to be monophasic in nature. For both male and female T. vaporariorum and female E. formosa a primary peak of efficiency occurred in the blue-green-yellow region, peak 520 nm and a secondary peak in the ultraviolet (UV) region. The compound eye of female E. formosa gave a significantly greater response in the UV region than either the dorsal or ventral regions of the compound eye of T. vaporariorum relative to the responses in the blue-green-yellow region. T. vaporariorum has divided compound eyes with distinct dorsal and ventral regions. In this study it was found that the percentage response in the UV, of the dorsal region of the eye, is significantly greater than that of the ventral region of the eye relative to the percentage response in the blue-green-yellow region and there is a significant shift in the blue-green yellow peak towards the right of the spectrum.     

Effects of UV-blocking films on the dispersal behavior of Encarsia formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae)

The parasitoid Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) has been used successfully for the control of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). The development of UV-blocking plastic films has added a new component to future integrated pest management systems by disrupting insect pest infestation when UV light is excluded. Because both T. vaporariorum and E. formosa are reported to have similar spectral efficiency, there was a need to identify the impact of UV-blocking films on the dispersal behavior of both the pest and the natural enemy. In field studies, using choice-chamber experiments, E. formosa showed some preference to disperse into compartments where less UV light was blocked. However, further studies indicated that the effect was primarily attributable to the different light diffusion properties of the films tested. Thus, unlike its whitefly host, when the UV-absorbing properties of the films were similar, but the light diffusion properties differed, E. formosa adults preferred to disperse into compartments clad with films that had high light diffusion properties. When the plastic films differed most in their UV-absorbing capacity and had no light-diffusion capability, the initial dispersal of E. formosa between treatments was similar, although a small preference toward the environment with UV light was observed over time. When parasitoid dispersal was measured 3 h after release, more parasitoids were found on plants, suggesting that the parasitoids would search plants for whitefly hosts, even in a UV-blocked light environment. The potential for the integration of UV-blocking films with E. formosa in an advanced whitefly management system is discussed.     

基于SCAR标记技术的丽蚜小蜂快速识别

丽蚜小蜂Encarsia formosa Gahan作为温室粉虱Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood和烟粉虱Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)等粉虱类害虫的优势寄生蜂而备受关注。针对丽蚜小蜂体型微小, 难以与其他同域近缘种寄生蜂快速、 准确区别的问题, 本研究采用SCAR (sequence characterized amplified region, 特异性扩增区域)标记技术, 筛选出一对丽蚜小蜂特征片段扩增引物(EFZZF/EFZZR), 其扩增片段的大小为287 bp。种特异性检验结果表明, 该对引物只对丽蚜小蜂的基因组DNA具有扩增能力, 对其近缘种属寄生蜂如浅黄恩蚜小蜂Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd)、 海氏桨角蚜小蜂Eretmocerus hayati Zolnerowich & Rose、 本地未知种桨角蚜小蜂Eretmocerus sp.、 蒙氏桨角蚜小蜂Eretmocerus mundus Mercet、 刺粉虱黑蜂Amitus hesperidum Silvertri不具有扩增效果, 对丽蚜小蜂的寄主包括不同生物型 (B型、 Q型、 ZHJ 1型和ZHJ 2型)的烟粉虱、 温室粉虱以及我国最常见的黑刺粉虱Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Quaintanca)等亦不具有扩增能力。同时, 该检测技术灵敏度高, 对成虫的最低检出阈值为7.812 ng/μL (相当于1/1 600头成虫)。研究结果对丽蚜小蜂的种类识别、 寄主谱的确定及其有效利用具有重要意义。     

Interspecific host discrimination and within-host competition between Encarsia formosa and E. pergandiella (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), two endoparasitoids of whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Interspecific host discrimination and within-host competition between Encarsia formosa Gahan and Encarsia pergandiella (Howard), two endoparasitoids of whiteflies, were studied under laboratory conditions. Interspecific host discrimination was studied at two time intervals (0 h and 72 h after the first species had oviposited). Parasitized and unparasitized Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) hosts were accepted for oviposition at the same rate by the two parasitoid species. Host type did not affect the handling time of the two parasitoids. The outcome of within-host competition was investigated after females of the two species parasitized the hosts at various time intervals. In four treatments, E. pergandiella was allowed to oviposit 0, 24, 48 and 72 h after E. formosa while in the other two, E. formosa was allowed to oviposit 0 and 72 h after E. pergandiella. In four of these treatments: E. formosa following E. pergandiella at 0 and 72 h, and E. pergandiella following E. formosa at 0 and 24 h, E. pergandiella prevailed. In the host discrimination experiment (72 h interval), 20% of E. pergandiella eggs were killed by E. formosa females. Interspecific ovicide was also observed in the within-host competition experiment, in which 6% of 72-h-old E. pergandiella eggs were killed by E. formosa females.     

Parasitoid load affects plant fitness in a tritrophic system

Plants attacked by herbivorous insects emit volatile compounds that attract predators or parasitoids of the herbivores. Plant fitness increases when these herbivorous insects are parasitized by solitary parasitoids, but whether gregarious koinobiont parasitoids also confer a benefit to plant fitness has been disputed. We investigated the relationship between parasitoid load of the gregarious Cotesia glomerata (L.) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), food consumption by larvae of their host Pieris brassicae L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), and seed production in a host plant, Brassica nigra L. (Brassicaceae), in a greenhouse experiment. Plants damaged by caterpillars containing single parasitoid broods produced a similar amount of seeds as undamaged control plants and produced significantly more seeds than plants with unparasitized caterpillars feeding on them. Increasing the parasitoid load to levels likely resulting from superparasitization, feeding by parasitized caterpillars was significantly negatively correlated with plant seed production. Higher parasitoid brood sizes were negatively correlated with pupal weight of Cotesia glomerata , revealing scramble competition leading to a fitness trade-off for the parasitoid. Our results suggest that in this tritrophic system plant fitness is higher when the gregarious parasitoid deposits a single brood into its herbivorous host. A prediction following from these results is that plants benefit from recruiting parasitoids when superparasitization is prevented. This is supported by our previous results on down-regulation of synomone production when Brassica oleracea was fed on by parasitized caterpillars of P. brassicae . We conclude that variable parasitoid loads in gregarious koinobiont parasitoids largely explain existing controversies about the putative benefit of recruiting these parasitoids for plant reproduction.     

Intrinsic rate of population increase of Amitus fuscipennis MacGown and Nebeker (Hym., Platygasteridae) according to climatic conditions and bean cultivar

Data on adult longevity, reproduction and intrinsic rate of population increase of insect parasitoid Amitus fuscipennis MacGown and Nebeker (Hym., Platygasteridae) were obtained under different climatic conditions on two bean cultivars. The insect host was the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hom., Aleyrodidae). On cv. Chocho, at 19°C, 75 ± 5% RH and at 22°C, 70 ± 5% RH, mean longevity of adult Amitus females on the host insect was 9.3 and 5.7 days; mean fertility was 64.1 eggs and 52.7 eggs; and r_m values were 0.102 day^–1 and 0.144 day^–1 for the respective conditions. On cv. ICA-Pijao, at 19°C, 75 ± 5% RH, mean longevity was 15.2 days; mean fertility was highest (162.8 eggs); and r_m value was 0.117 day^–1. The r_m values of Amitus were higher than those of its host under the same test conditions. This parasitoid may therefore be a suitable candidate for use in inoculative or seasonal inoculative control programs against T. vaporariorum .     

Electroantennogram (EAG) responses of Microplitis croceipes and Cotesia marginiventris and their lepidopteran hosts to a wide array of odor stimuli: Correlation between EAG response and degree of host specificity?

In order to test whether the electroantennogram (EAG) response spectrum of an insect correlates to its degree of host specificity, we recorded EAG responses of two parasitoid species with different degrees of host specificity, Microplitis croceipes (specialist) and Cotesia marginiventris (generalist), to a wide array of odor stimuli including compounds representing green leaf volatiles (GLVs), herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPV), ecologically irrelevant (not used by the parasitoid species and their hosts for host location) plant volatiles, and host-specific odor stimuli (host sex pheromones, and extracts of host caterpillar body and frass). We also tested the EAG responses of female moths of the caterpillar hosts of the parasitoids, Heliothis virescens and Spodoptera exigua, to some of the odor stimuli. We hypothesized that the specialist parasitoid will have a narrower EAG response spectrum than the generalist, and that the two lepidopteran species, which are similar in their host plant use, will show similar EAG response spectra to plant volatiles. As predicted, the specialist parasitoid showed greater EAG responses than the generalist to host-specific odor and one HIPV (cis-3-hexenyl butyrate), whereas the generalist showed relatively greater EAG responses to the GLVs and unrelated plant volatiles. We detected no differences in the EAG responses of H. virescens and S. exigua to any of the tested odor.     

The role of volatiles from cruciferous plants and pre-flight experience in the foraging behaviour of the specialist parasitoid Cotesia plutellae

The braconid Cotesia plutellae is an important larval parasitoid of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), a major pest of crucifers in the tropics and sub-tropics. The in-flight searching behaviour of C. plutellae was investigated in a wind tunnel and the close-range attack behaviour observed in cages. The relative importance of volatile stimuli emanating from the plant-host-complex, oilseed rape (Brassica napus) – P. xylostella, in the long-range attraction of C. plutellae was investigated. Plants that were mechanically damaged, or damaged by P. xylostella larvae, were attractive to the parasitoid. Host-damaged leaves remained attractive to the parasitoid after removal of the host larvae. These results indicate that C. plutellae predominantly uses plant derived stimuli in its in-flight searching behaviour. An oviposition experience or contact with a host-damaged leaf prior to the bioassay significantly increased the response to these volatile cues. The foraging behaviour of C. plutellae is compared with other braconid larval parasitoids attacking lepidopteran hosts on crucifers.     

Effects of linear furanocoumarins on the herbivore Spodoptera exigua and the parasitoid Archytas marmoratus: host quality and parasitoid success

We assessed the effects of three photoactivated linear furanocoumarins, secondary plant metabolites present in Apium spp. (Apiaceae) and other taxa, on the larval-pupal parasitoid, Archytas marmoratus (Townsend) (Diptera: Tachinidae) and the host Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in the presence and absence of ultraviolet radiation. These results then were compared with previously described responses of Archytas marmoratus and other hosts to different plant allelochemicals. Ultraviolet radiation had no consistent detrimental effects. Increasing concentrations of linear furanocoumarins (from 0 to 0.029% of fresh weight) increased mortality of both the host and parasitoid. Increasing linear furanocoumarin levels also prolonged larval development of surviving S. exigua, but had no effect on pupal developmental time or pupal mass. Consequently, there was no effect of increasing linear furanocoumarin levels on surviving parasitoid development time (from the time of host pupation) or size. These results indicate the effects of linear furanocoumarins are mediated through effects on the host. Because reported responses of Ar. marmoratus to other allelochemicals (e.g., flavones, methyl ketones) are mediated through host effects, these results support the hypothesis that Ar. marmoratus displays a generalized response to plant allelochemicals that are predictable based on host mediated effects.     

Natural enemies of the maize cob borer,Mussidia nigrivenella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Benin,West Africa

Mussidia nigrivenella Ragonot is a pest of maize cobs in West Africa. It significantly reduces maize yields and grain quality, with quantitative losses of 2-25%at harvest, and up to 10-15% indirect losses due to an increase in storage pest infestation levels. Infestation by M. nigrivenella also significantly increased the susceptibility of maize to Aspergillus flavus infection and subsequent aflatoxin contamination. Surveys conducted in different agro-ecological zones of Benin on cultivated and wild host plants during 1994-1997 revealed one egg parasitoid, three larval parasitoids and one pupal parasitoid attacking M. nigrivenella. Egg parasitism was scarce on all host plants sampled and in all four agro-ecological zones. Parasitism by larval and pupal parasitoids was usually less than 10%, and varied with host plant species. Both larval and pupal parasitoids were rare or absent in cultivated maize fields. The solitary chalcidid pupal parasitoid, Antrocephalus crassipes Masi, was the predominant species, contributing approximately 53% of the observed mortality. Logistic regression analysis indicated that this parasitoid was more prevalent on fruits of Gardenia spp. (Rubiaceae) than on the other host plant species including maize used by M. nigrivenella, and was most abundant between February and September. The differences in parasitoid diversity and parasitism between Benin and other regions suggest that there are opportunities for biological control through introduction of exotic parasitoids or using the 'new association' approach, which uses natural enemies of closely related host species that occupy similar ecological niches to the target pest.     

The roles of foraging environment,host species,and host diet for a generalist pupal parasitoid

Even for parasitoids with a wide host range, not all host species are equally suitable, and host quality often depends on the plant the host feeds on. We compared oviposition choice and offspring performance of a generalist pupal parasitoid, Pteromalus apum (Retzius) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), on two congeneric hosts reared on two plant species under field and laboratory conditions. The plants contain defensive iridoid glycosides that are sequestered by the hosts. Sequestration at the pupal stage differed little between host species and, although the concentrations of iridoid glycosides in the two plant species differ, there was no effect of diet on the sequestration by host pupae. The rate of successful parasitism differed between host species, depending on the conditions they were presented in. In the field, where plant‐associated cues are present, the parasitoid used Melitaea cinxia (L.) over Melitaea athalia (Rottemburg) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), whereas more M. athalia were parasitised in simplified laboratory conditions. In the field, brood size, which is partially determined by rate of superparasitism, depended on both host and plant species. There was little variation in other aspects of offspring performance related to host or plant species, indicating that the two host plants are of equal quality for the hosts, and the hosts are of equal quality for the parasitoids. Corresponding to this, we found no evidence for associative learning by the parasitoid based on their natal host, so with respect to these host species they are truly generalist in their foraging behaviour.     

Life history of Amitus fuscipennis (Hym., Platygastridae) as parasitoid of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Hom., Aleyrodidae) on tomato as function of temperature

Life history parameters of Amitus fuscipennis MacGown and Nebeker as parasitoid of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) were determined at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C on tomato using three different methods. For each method, immature development, mortality, longevity, fecundity, oviposition frequency and post-oviposition period were determined and temperature-dependent relations were estimated. Oviposition frequency was also estimated as a function of parasitoid age. Immature development had a maximum of 61 days at 15°C that decreased to 22 days at 30°C. Mortality in the grey stage was less than 2% at temperatures lower than 30°C, where it was 60%. Longevity fluctuated between 3 and 18 days. Fecundity increased from 338 eggs/female at 15°C to a maximum of 430 eggs/female at 25°C and then decreased to 119 eggs/female at 30°C. Oviposition frequency varied between 3 and 46 eggs/female per day and had its maximum on the first day after emergence of the parasitoid. Net reproduction rate, generation time and intrinsic rate of increase were calculated. The intrinsic rate of increase increased from 0.090 at 15°C to a maximum of 0.233 at 25°C and then decreased to 0.159 at 30°C. The influence of the methods to determine the life history parameters on the results is discussed. The results are compared also with the life history of Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hym., Aphelinidae) a parasitoid of the same host. The advantages and disadvantages of the pro-ovigenic A. fuscipennis in comparison with the synovigenic E. formosa are discussed.     

The interaction between host and host plant influences the oviposition and performance of a generalist ectoparasitoid

The successful development of parasitoids of herbivores depends on the quality of their host, which is often affected by the host plant. Therefore, a parasitoid’s oviposition decisions will directly depend on the host, but also on plant quality. Here, we investigated the direct effects of host species and the indirect effects of the host’s food plant on the oviposition decisions and performance of the gregarious ectoparasitoid Euplectrus platyhypenae Howard (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). With a series of no‐choice experiments, we determined the oviposition and performance of the parasitoid on: (1) two caterpillar species, fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and velvet armyworm, Spodoptera latifascia Walker, reared on maize (Zea mays L., Poaceae), (2) the same caterpillars reared on maize, bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L., Fabaceae), or squash (Cucurbita pepo L., Cucurbitaceae) leaves, and (3) S. latifascia caterpillars reared on leaves of wild and cultivated lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus L. All these insects and plants originate from Mesoamerica where they have coexisted for thousands of years in the traditional agricultural system known as Milpa in which maize, beans, and squash are planted together. We found that the preferred and best combination of host and host plant for parasitoid performance was S. frugiperda on maize. Parasitoids laid larger clutches, had higher survival, and more females and larger adults emerged from S. frugiperda reared on maize. However, when both caterpillar species were reared on squash, S. latifascia was the better host. Contrary to the literature, S. frugiperda was not able to develop on bean plants. Results from the lima bean experiment showed that parasitoid performance was best when S. latifascia was reared on leaves of cultivated compared to wild lima bean. These findings are discussed in the context of mixed cropping in which the ability of generalist parasitoids to switch among hosts and host plant species could be advantageous for pest management.     

Role of volatiles emitted by host and non-host plants in the foraging behaviour of Dentichasmias busseolae, a pupal parasitoid of the spotted stemborer Chilo partellus

The role of volatiles from stemborer host and non‐host plants in the host‐finding process of Dentichasmias busseolae Heinrich (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) a pupal parasitoid of Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) was studied. The non‐host plant, molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora Beauv. (Poaceae)), is reported to produce some volatile compounds known to be attractive to some parasitoid species. The studies were conducted to explore the possibility of intercropping stemborer host plants with molasses grass in order to enhance the foraging activity of D. busseolae in such a diversified agro‐ecosystem. Olfactometric bioassays showed that volatiles from the host plants maize, Zea mays L., and sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) (Poaceae), were attractive to the parasitoid. Infested host plants were the most attractive. Volatiles from molasses grass were repellent to the parasitoid. Further tests showed that volatiles from infested and uninfested host plants alone were preferred over those from infested and uninfested host plants combined with the non‐host plant, molasses grass. In dual choice tests, the parasitoid did not discriminate between volatiles from maize infested by either of the two herbivore species, C. partellus or Busseola fusca Fuller (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Volatiles from sorghum infested by C. partellus were preferred over those from C. partellus‐infested maize. The study showed that the pupal parasitoid D. busseolae uses plant volatiles during foraging, with those from the plant–herbivore complex being the most attractive. The fact that volatiles from molasses grass were deterrent to the parasitoid suggested that intercropping maize or sorghum with molasses grass was not likely to enhance the foraging behaviour of D. busseolae. Volatiles from the molasses grass may hinder D. busseolae's host location efficiency.     

Life history of Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on various host plants

The incubation period of Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) was not influenced by the host plant, whereas larval development time and pupal period were affected. Larval development time was longest on shallot and lady's finger, followed by cabbage and long bean. Larvae did not develop beyond the first instar when fed on chilli. The pupal period was longer on lady's finger than on cabbage, shallot and long bean. Overall, adult longevity was not influenced by the host plant but there was a difference between female and male longevity among the host plants. Survival of S. exigua was affected by the host plant at the larval stage. The number of larval instars varied between 5 and 8 within and between the studied host plants. Long bean was found to be the most suitable host plant and provide the best food quality for S. exigua compared to the other host plants, as it allowed faster development, fewer larval instars and a higher survival rate.     

Effects of parasitoid community structure upon the population dynamics of the honeysuckle leafminer,Chromatomyia suikazurae (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Population dynamics of a leafminer,Chromatomyia suikazurae (Agromyzidae, Diptera) and its parasitoid community were studied for ten years at seven natural populations along an altitudinal gradient in Japan. This species which mines leaves of a forest shrub,Lonicera gracilipes (Caprifoliaceae), was attacked by 25 hymenopterous parasitoid species. Annually, the parasitoid community structure varied less within a population than among populations. The seven parasitoid communities were clustered into three groups corresponding to the altitudinal gradient: (a) lowland communities dominated by late-attacking, generalist pupal idiobiont eulophids and with highest species diversity, (b) hillside communities dominated by an early-attacking, specialist larval-pupal koinobiont braconid and (c) highland communities dominated by an early-attacking, generalist larval idiobiont eulophid. Annual changes of the host larval densities among the local populations were largely synchronous rather than cyclic. Among these populations, host density levels and mortality patterns greatly varied. By analyzing these inter-populational differences of host mortality patterns, the following conclusions were drawn: (1) The host mortality patterns were determined by the host utilization patterns of the locally dominant species. (2) The host pupal mortality but not larval mortality was related to species diversity but not to species richness itself of each parasitoid community. (3) Density dependence was detected only in pupal mortality at a lowland population dominated by late-attacking pupal parasitoids. These results suggest that interspecific interactions of parasitoids add additive effects to host population dynamics dissimilarly among local populations with different parasitoid communities.