An analysis of influential factors on outdoor thermal comfort in summer

A variety of research has linked high temperature to outdoor thermal comfort in summer, but it remains unclear how outdoor meteorological environments influence people's thermal sensation in subtropical monsoon climate areas, especially in China. In order to explain the process, and to better understand the related influential factors, we conducted an extensive survey of thermally comfortable conditions in open outdoor spaces. The goal of this study was to gain an insight into the subjects' perspectives on weather variables and comfort levels, and determine the factors responsible for the varying human thermal comfort response in summer. These perceptions were then compared to actual ambient conditions. The database consists of surveys rated by 205 students trained from 6:00 am to 8:00 pm outdoors from 21 to 25 August 2009, at Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology (NUIST), Nanjing, China. The multiple regression approach and simple factor analysis of variance were used to investigate the relationships between thermal comfort and meteorological environment, taking into consideration individual mood, gender, level of regular exercise, and previous environmental experiences. It was found that males and females have similar perceptions of maximum temperature; in the most comfortable environment, mood appears to have a significant influence on thermal comfort, but the influence of mood diminishes as the meteorological environment becomes increasingly uncomfortable. In addition, the study confirms the strong relationship between thermal comfort and microclimatic conditions, including solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, wind speed and relative humidity, ranked by importance. There are also strong effects of illness, clothing and exercise, all of which influence thermal comfort. We also find that their former place of residence influences people's thermal comfort substantially by setting expectations. Finally, some relationships between thermal perception and amount of exercise, thermal experience, mood, clothing, illness and microclimate, etc., are established. Our findings also shed light on how to resist or adapt to outdoor hyperthermic conditions during summer in subtropical monsoon climate areas.     

长沙城市斑块湿地资源的时空演变

利用GIS技术,对长沙市1955、1972和1990年地形图湿地数据及2007年长沙市湿地资源普查数据进行提取和分析,选取最具代表性的斑块湿地作为研究对象,从时间与空间、动态与静态、规模与填埋等视角,研究50年来城市斑块湿地生态系统各层次要素的时空演变过程和变化规律.结果表明:(1)时间层次上,长沙城市斑块湿地总面积呈现先增后减、总体增加的态势;斑块湿地面积变化幅度不断加大,速率逐步加快;(2)规模层次上,面积在32 hm2规模以下的斑块湿地呈增加态势,32 hm2规模以上斑块湿地呈减少态势;(3)动态空间层次上,被填埋斑块湿地的比例在建成区和郊区呈相反的演变结果;(4)静态空间层次上,斑块湿地密度在建成区范围和郊区范围演变结果相背.研究显示,伴随着城市化进程,不同时间尺度、不同规模尺度、不同空间属性、不同空间状态的城市斑块湿地常常呈现差异很大、甚至是截然相反的演变结果;无论是动态空间还是静态空间,建成区与郊区的空间分界线往往是城市斑块湿地演变态势的分水岭.     

北京公园绿地夏季温湿效应

选取北京典型的城市园林绿地--元大都城垣遗址公园北段不同覆盖率的乔-灌-草、乔-草型复层结构的公园绿地作为研究对象,以草坪型绿地作为对照,从水平和立体空间两个角度进行测试,研究局部绿地的覆盖率、复层结构对环境的温湿效应.结果表明:在夏季高温时段,绿地的温度随覆盖率的增加而降低,当覆盖率达到或高于60%时,其绿地才具有明显的降温增湿效果;覆盖率较高的乔-灌-草复合型绿地给环境带来的温湿度的空间影响范围较大,乔-灌-草复合型绿地的降温增湿效应好于草坪.合理的绿化结构及植物配置能使城市园林绿地较好地发挥其夏季的降温增湿效应,有利于改善城市热环境、减缓城市热岛效应.     

上海城市公共开放空间夏季小气候及舒适度

基于2006年5—8月上海城区5种类型公共开放空间（广场、喷泉、草坪、廊道、林地）的空气温度、相对湿度、风速和辐射强度等小气候指标,分析了各空间类型对小气候的调节作用,并采用体感气象指数（discomfort index, DI）作为评价指标,比较了各空间类型对人体舒适程度影响的差异.结果表明：上海市5种类型公共开放空间的平均温度、相对湿度等小气候因子存在一定差异;平均气温依次为广场＞草坪＞喷泉＞廊道＞林地;平均空气相对湿度依次为林地＞廊道＞喷泉＞草坪＞广场;广场面积、喷泉水体附近的风速及风向、草坪的草种类型、廊道的宽度及乔木盖度、林地的盖度及乔木林冠层高度等非气候指标分别与各自空间的气候指标呈显著相关.与其他3种空间类型相比,林地和廊道具有明显的遮荫、降温、增湿作用,对小气候的调节能力更佳.     

上海城市绿地夏季降温效应及其影响因素

城市绿地在夏季高温时具有明显降温作用,但在不同地区降温效果及其影响因子存在一定差异。以上海市为例,基于高分影像和实地观测,调查分析了18个典型样地夏季降温效应及其关键影响因子。结果发现：上海城市绿地夏季日均降温1.17-5.60℃,其中67%观测样地降温幅度低于平均值（2.51℃）;绿地降温幅度与对照点的环境温度显著正相关,当外界环境温度低于26℃时,城市绿地降温效应不明显;此外,城市绿地覆被格局对其降温效应有明显影响,当绿地乔木密度增加5%、叶面积指数增大1或者水面比例增加20%时,可使夏季绿地降温率分别提高1.73%、1.66%和1.18%。因此,在全球气候变暖背景下,优化提升上海城市绿地覆被格局可有效提升夏季绿地降温效应。     

The influence of urban design on outdoor thermal comfort in the hot, humid city of Colombo, Sri Lanka

The outdoor environment is deteriorating in many tropical cities due to rapid urbanization. This leads to a number of problems related to health and well-being of humans and also negatively affects social and commercial outdoor activities. The creation of thermally comfortable microclimates in urban environments is therefore very important. This paper discusses the influence of street-canyon geometry on outdoor thermal comfort in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Five sites with different urban geometry, ground cover, and distance from the sea were studied during the warmest season. The environmental parameters affecting thermal comfort, viz. air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation, were measured, and the thermal comfort was estimated by calculating the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET). The thermal comfort is far above the assumed comfort zone due to the combination of intense solar radiation, high temperatures, and low wind speeds, especially on clear days. The worst conditions were found in wide streets with low-rise buildings and no shade trees. The most comfortable conditions were found in narrow streets with tall buildings, especially if shade trees were present, as well as in areas near the coast where the sea breeze had a positive effect. In order to improve the outdoor comfort in Colombo, it is suggested to allow a more compact urban form with deeper street canyons and to provide additional shade through the use of trees, covered walkways, pedestrian arcades, etc. The opening up of the city's coastal strip would allow the sea breeze to penetrate further into the city.     

Behavioral thermal tolerances of free-ranging rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus) during the summer foraging season

Increasing temperature due to climate change is one of the greatest challenges for wildlife worldwide. Behavioral data on free-ranging individuals is necessary to determine at what temperatures animals modify activity as this would determine their capacity to continue to move, forage, and mate under altered thermal regimes. In particular, high temperatures could limit available surface activity time and time spent on fitness-related activities. Conversely, performance, such as feeding rate, can increase with temperature potentially having positive fitness effects. Here, we examine how the hunting behaviors of free-ranging Northern Pacific Rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus) associate with air temperature and body temperature. We continuously recorded snakes in the field using videography, capturing behaviors rarely considered in past studies such as movements in and out of refuge and strikes on prey. We found that as mean daily air temperature increased, hunting activity and the likelihood of hunting at night decreased, while the number of movements and distance moved per day increased. Snakes typically retreated to refuge before body temperatures reached 31 °C. Body temperatures of snakes hunting on the surface were lower compared to temperatures of non-hunting snakes in refuge in the morning, while this relationship was inverted in the afternoon. Snake body size influenced the disparity of these temperatures. Finally, strike initiation and success occurred across a wide range of body temperatures, indicating hunting performance may not be strongly constrained by temperature. These results on the temperatures at which free-ranging rattlesnakes exhibit fitness-related behaviors could be valuable for understanding their vulnerabilities to future climates.     

Development of outdoor thermal index indicating universal and separate effects on human thermal comfort

The purpose of this study is to propose a new outdoor thermal index that simultaneously indicates universal and separate effects. The value indicating universal effect in this index consists of the summation of air temperature and the effective temperature differences by air velocity, longwave radiation, solar radiation, and humidity. This paper describes the theoretical construction of this newly derived index to compare with previous indices. The calculations of the new index are demonstrated using the observed data in order to explicitly indicate the specific features of the new index.     

京津唐城市生态系统能值比较

运用能值(emergy)分析方法,以京津冀地区的北京、天津、唐山为研究对象,建立了复合生态系统与可持续发展的能值指标,对3个城市1991～2005年自然环境与社会经济可持续发展状况进行了比较分析.研究结果表明:1991～2005年期间,由于北京、天津的本地资源能值对经济发展的驱动力不足,城市发展对外部输入能值的依赖程度越来越高;北京、天津、唐山社会子系统的能值指标均呈上升趋势,城市居民生活水平和经济发展水平不断提高;北京经济子系统的各项指标均优于天津和唐山,但环境子系统和能值可持续指标体现出,北京的环境压力最大、可持续发展能力低于天津和唐山.在此分析基础上,对北京、天津、唐山的可持续发展提出了几点建议,为制定城市发展策略和产业调整提供科学依据.     

A comparative analysis of thermal blood perfusion measurement techniques

The object of this study was to devise a unified method for comparing different thermal techniques for the estimation of blood perfusion rates and to perform a comparison for several common techniques. The approach used was to develop analytical models for the temperature response for all combinations of five power deposition geometries (spherical, one- and two-dimensional cylindrical, and one- and two-dimensional Gaussian) and three transient heating techniques (temperature pulse-decay, temperature step function, and constant-power heat-up) plus one steady-state heating technique. The transient models were used to determine the range of times (the time window) when a significant portion of the transient temperature response was due to blood perfusion. This time window was defined to begin when the difference between the conduction-only and the conduction-plus-blood flow transient temperature (or power) responses exceeded a specified value, and to end when the conduction-plus-blood flow transient temperature (or power) reached a specified fraction of its steady-state value. The results are summarized in dimensionless plots showing the size of the time windows for each of the transient perfusion estimation techniques. Several conclusions were drawn, in particular: (a) low perfusions are difficult to estimate because of the dominance of conduction, (b) large heated regions are better suited for estimation of low perfusions, (c) noninvasive heating techniques are superior because they have the potential to minimize conduction effects, and (d) none of the transient techniques appears to be clearly superior to the others.     

A comparative study of the Neolithic and Modern human skulls in China

The Neolithic human skulls of this study date from about 6000 years ago (4750–3700 B.C.) and they have been subjected to a cephalometric evaluation by computer and their mandibles and crown have been measured along with the Modern. The data resulting from this measurements have been compared and used in significant tests that led to interesting conclusions. The average Neolithic human ANB angle turned out to be smaller (P<0.05), while their 1-NA (mm) and 1-AP (mm) resulted to be large in comparison with the Modern one. Both Y axis angle and the occlusal plane angle resulted to be smaller for the Neolithic skulls (P<0.01). This results suggest that the Neolithic facial skeleton shows a more evident development: the data of the mandibles are remarkably different in the Neolithic and in the Modern skulls. Indeed, the Neolithic human mandibles are larger: its impacted third molar is 7.5% (the Moderns is 26.5–45.0%; their third molar congenital deficiency is 9.4% (the Moderns is 40.6%). The significance of our results is then discussed.     

城市绿地和建筑格局影响热环境的模拟研究

景观类型和格局能够影响城市热环境,但是在不同小区域背景下,它们的贡献差异尚缺少定量研究。将实地监测与数值模拟技术相结合,对北京市典型景观的风速场与温度场进行模拟研究,分析天空开阔度、绿地面积与风速、地表温度之间的关系。在此基础上,探讨绿地形态与绿地温度及地表温度的关系,同时设计多种典型的城市绿地、建筑格局在计算机中进行模拟,揭示不同绿地、建筑景观配置下热环境的影响因素。结果表明：（1）天空开阔度和风速是影响城市小区域热环境的重要因素,天空开阔度与地表温度显著负相关,高风速会明显降低地表温度;（2）绿地面积和形态是影响区域地表温度与气温的重要因素,占比10%-50%的绿地降温强度为1.4-2.2℃,面积越大、形态越复杂,降温效应越明显,分散的绿地降温效应优于集中式绿地;（3）迎风向呈两端低中间高的建筑分布可显著改善热环境,较其它格局气温约低1.6℃。研究结果对于指导城市景观设计改善城市热环境具有一定的参考价值。     

城市绿地外来物种风险分析体系构建及其在上海世博会管理中的应用

外来物种风险分析是防止生物入侵的有效手段之一。本文按照风险识别、风险评估和风险管理3个阶段,构建了城市绿地外来物种风险分析体系。文中提出了4个层次、26个指标构成风险评估指标体系,此体系囊括了城市绿地外来物种的传入、定殖、扩散、危害等入侵风险形成的基本要素,并规范了风险指数的计算方法。以2010年上海世博会引进日本景观苗木可能携带的外来物种为对象,对该体系在生产实践中进行了应用。结果表明:高风险物种共7种,涉及害虫4种、植物病原微生物2种、植物线虫1种;中风险物种共10种,涉及害虫3种、植物病原微生物4种、植物线虫3种;低、极低风险物种各1种。根据风险分析结果,对以上物种提出了有针对性的风险管理措施。实践表明,该风险分析体系实用性强,在上海世博会植物引种过程中为防止外来物种入侵起到了较好的预警效果,为管理者提供了有价值的决策参考,有力保障了上海世博会期间的生态安全。     

A comparative collision-based analysis of human gait

This study compares human walking and running, and places them within the context of other mammalian gaits. We use a collision-based approach to analyse the fundamental dynamics of the centre of mass (CoM) according to three angles derived from the instantaneous force and velocity vectors. These dimensionless angles permit comparisons across gait, species and size. The collision angle Φ, which is equivalent to the dimensionless mechanical cost of transport CoT_mech, is found to be three times greater during running than walking of humans. This threefold difference is consistent with previous studies of walking versus trotting of quadrupeds, albeit tends to be greater in the gaits of humans and hopping bipeds than in quadrupeds. Plotting the collision angle Φ together with the angles of the CoM force vector Θ and velocity vector Λ results in the functional grouping of bipedal and quadrupedal gaits according to their CoM dynamics—walking, galloping and ambling are distinguished as separate gaits that employ collision reduction, whereas trotting, running and hopping employ little collision reduction and represent more of a continuum that is influenced by dimensionless speed. Comparable with quadrupedal mammals, collision fraction (the ratio of actual to potential collision) is 0.51 during walking and 0.89 during running, indicating substantial collision reduction during walking, but not running, of humans.     

A comparative analysis of numt evolution in human and chimpanzee

Mitochondrial DNA sequences are frequently transferred into the nuclear genome, giving rise to numts (nuclear DNA sequences of mitochondrial origin). So far, the evolutionary history of numts has largely been studied by using single genomes. Here, we present the first attempt to study numt evolution in a comparative manner by using a pairwise genomic alignment. The total number of numts was estimated to be 452 in human and 469 in chimpanzee. numts that were found in both genomes at identical loci were deemed to be orthologous; 391 numts (>80%) were classified as such. The preponderance of orthologous numts is due to the very short divergence time between the 2 hominoids. The rest of numts were deemed to be nonorthologous. Nonorthologous numts were subdivided into 1) ancestral numts that have lost an ortholog in one species through deletion (12 in human and 11 in chimpanzee), 2) new numts acquired by the insertion of a mitochondrial sequence after the divergence of the 2 species (34 in human and 46 in chimpanzee), and 3) paralogous numts created by the tandem duplication of a preexisting numt (2 in human). This approach also enabled us to reconstruct the numt repertoire in the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (409 numts). Our comparative approach is also useful in identifying the exact boundaries of numts.     

Evaluating the behaviour of different thermal indices by investigating various outdoor urban environments in the hot dry city of Damascus, Syria

Consideration of urban microclimate and thermal comfort is an absolute neccessity in urban development, and a set of guidelines for every type of climate must be elaborated. However, to develop guidelines, thermal comfort ranges need to be defined. The aim of this study was to evaluate the behaviour of different thermal indices by investigating different thermal environments in Damascus during summer and winter. A second aim was to define the lower and upper limits of the thermal comfort range for some of these indices. The study was based on comprehensive micrometeorological measurements combined with questionnaires. It was found that the thermal conditions of different outdoor environments vary considerably. In general, Old Damascus, with its deep canyons, is more comfortable in summer than modern Damascus where there is a lack of shade. Conversely, residential areas and parks in modern Damascus are more comfortable in winter due to more solar access. The neutral temperatures of both the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) and the outdoor standard effective temperature (OUT_SET*) were found to be lower in summer than in winter. At 80 % acceptability, the study defined the lower comfort limit in winter to 21.0 °C and the upper limit in summer to 31.3 °C for PET. For OUT_SET*, the corresponding lower and upper limits were 27.6 °C and 31.3 °C respectively. OUT_SET* showed a better correlation with the thermal sensation votes than PET. The study also highlighted the influence of culture and traditions on people’s clothing as well as the influence of air conditioning on physical adaptation.     

城市绿地热效应全年变化特征及其与背景气象因子的关系

城市绿地能够调节热气候,是城市实现高质量可持续发展的重要空间载体。以往研究着重探讨城市绿地夏季降温效应的空间特征,较少分析绿地热效应的全年变化规律与潜在影响因子。在南京城区选择7个代表性城市公园,采用热气候定点观测方法获取公园大气温度全年观测数据,并与城市中心区参照点进行对比,分析公园热效应的全年动态变化规律及背景气象因子的影响。研究发现,由于植被覆盖率、冠层郁闭度及海拔不同,不同公园热效应的季节、昼夜规律存在显著差异,主要表现为3种形式：全年降温型,全年昼升夜降型,以及夏季全天降温、春秋冬季昼升夜降型。与城市中心区相比,公园夏季最高可降低气温7.7℃,冬季最高可增温3℃。大气温度、相对湿度,风速与太阳辐射4个背景气象因子能解释23.5%-77.4%的公园热效应变异。夏冬两季日间热效应主要受太阳辐射和气温的影响,夜间热效应主要受风速影响：太阳辐射每升高100W/m²,夏季日间降温强度减少0.3℃,冬季日间增温强度增加0.2-0.5℃;气温每升高1℃,夏季日间降温强度提高0.1-0.14℃,冬季日间增温强度提高0.05-0.08℃;风速每增加1m/s,夏季夜间降温强度减少0.05-0.78℃,冬季夜间降温强度减少0.4-1.1℃。研究结果有助于深入认识城市绿地热效应的复杂形成机制,并为夏热冬冷地区城市自然空间保护与气候适应性设计提供科学参考。