Age-related changes of the branched-chain fatty acid concentration in rat skin surface lipid.

1. Age-related change of the branched-chain fatty acid distribution in rat skin surface lipid was studied for 24 months. 2. The proportion of even carbon number iso-acid increased from infancy to month 5 and thereafter decreased with advancing age toward senescence. 3. Concentration of odd carbon number iso-acid depicted a similar shape of time course, but with a lesser magnitude and a peak value at month 1. 4. Anteiso- fatty acid reached the plateau level at month 5 and remained roughly constant through maturity to senescence.     

Intracellular lipid binding proteins and nuclear receptors involved in branched-chain fatty acid signaling

Branched-chain fatty acids are potent regulators of gene expression. Among them are the vitamin A-derived retinoic acids, which are involved in cell growth and differentiation, and the chlorophyll-derived phytol metabolites such as phytanic and pristanic acids, which affect catabolic lipid metabolism. Gene expression regulated by these signaling molecules is mediated by two protein families. These are, on the one hand, the intracellular lipid binding proteins, i.e. cellular retinoic acid binding protein and liver-type fatty acid binding protein, which are responsible for ligand-transport to the nucleus. On the other hand are the ligand-activated nuclear receptors, i.e. the retinoic acid receptors for retinoic acids and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors for the phytol metabolites. In this review, we discuss the cross-talk between the two protein families and how this cross-talk contributes to targeted signaling with branched-chain fatty acids.     

Liver fatty acid binding protein expression enhances branched-chain fatty acid metabolism

Although liver fatty acid binding protein (L-FABP) is known to enhance uptake and esterification of straight-chain fatty acids such as palmitic acid and oleic acid, its effects on oxidation and further metabolism of branched-chain fatty acids such as phytanic acid are not completely understood. The present data demonstrate for the first time that expression of L-FABP enhanced initial rate and average maximal oxidation of [2,3-3H] phytanic acid 3.5- and 1.5-fold, respectively. This enhancement was not due to increased [2,3-3H] phytanic acid uptake, which was only slightly stimulated (20%) in L-FABP expressing cells after 30 min. Similarly, L-FABP also enhanced the average maximal oxidation of [9,10-3H] palmitic acid 2.2-fold after incubation for 30 min. However, the stimulation of L-FABP on palmitic acid oxidation nearly paralleled its 3.3-fold enhancement of uptake. To determine effects of metabolism on fatty acid uptake, a non-metabolizable fluorescent saturated fatty acid, BODIPY-C16, was examined by laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). L-FABP expression enhanced uptake of BODIPY-C16 1.7-fold demonstrating that L-FABP enhanced saturated fatty acid uptake independent of metabolism. Finally, L-FABP expression did not significantly alter [2,3-3H] phytanic acid esterification, but increased [9,10-3H] palmitic acid esterification 4.5-fold, primarily into phospholipids (3.7-fold) and neutral lipids (9-fold). In summary, L-FABP expression enhanced branched-chain phytanic acid oxidation much more than either its uptake or esterification. These data demonstrate a potential role for L-FABP in the peroxisomal oxidation of branched-chain fatty acids in intact cells.     

The regulation of fatty acid metabolism and other lipid compounds in ruminant animals

The review deals with peculiarities of molecular mechanisms of metabolism regulation of fatty acids and other lipid components in preruminant and ruminant animals (i.e. before and after formation of the functioning of the mixed microbial population in the rumen). A characteristic of possible biosynthesis regulation processes, transformation, transport, utilization and catabolism of fatty acids with different molecular masses and peculiarities and of triacylglycerols and other lipid substances in the liver compartments, skeletal and heart muscle cells has been shown. Peculiarities of intracellular changes in metabolism of fatty acids and apolipoprotein B in the liver of neonatal calves under development of alimentary enteropathology have been considered. Main factors in the mechanism of regulation of intracellular metabolism of fatty acids and lipid substances have been defined.     

Biosynthesis of branched-chain fatty acids in Bacillus subtilis. A decarboxylase is essential for branched-chain fatty acid synthetase

Branched long-chain fatty acids of the iso and anteiso series are synthesized in many bacteria from the branched-chain alpha-keto acids of valine, leucine, and isoleucine after their decarboxylation followed by chain elongation. Two distinct branched-chain alpha-keto acid (BCKA) and pyruvate decarboxylases, which are considered to be responsible for primer synthesis, were detected in, and purified in homogenous form from Bacillus subtilis 168 strain by procedures including ammonium sulfate fractionation and chromatography on ion exchange, reversed-phase, and gel absorption columns. The chemical and catalytic properties of the two decarboxylases were studied in detail. The removal of BCKA decarboxylase, using chromatographic fractionation, from the fatty acid synthetase significantly reduced its activity. The synthetase activity was completely lost upon immunoprecipitation of the decarboxylase. The removal of pyruvate decarboxylase by the above two methods, however, did not affect any activity of the fatty acid synthetase. Thus, BCKA decarboxylase, but not pyruvate decarboxylase, is essential for the synthesis of branched-chain fatty acids. The very high affinity of BCKA decarboxylase toward branched-chain alpha-keto acids is responsible for its function in fatty acid synthesis.     

Pharmacokinetics of fusidic acid in laboratory animals.

The ability of evaluate the efficacy of fusidic acid in animal models of infectious disease is limited by the absence of pharmacokinetic data for the agent in laboratory animals. In our study, aspects of fusidic acid pharmacokinetics were compared in rats (Rattus norwegicus), mice (Mus musculus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Sodium fusidate was poorly absorbed after oral administration to rats, although limited absorption occurred in guinea pigs, mice, and rabbits. Subcutaneous injections of diethanolamine fusidate to laboratory rats, however, achieved a serum profile similar to that observed in humans. There was no evidence of drug accumulation in rats given repeated subcutaneous doses of diethanolamine fusidate during a 4-day period, but rabbits showed clear evidence of a cumulative effect.     

Effect of SCP-x gene ablation on branched-chain fatty acid metabolism

Despite the importance of peroxisomal oxidation in branched-chain lipid (phytol, cholesterol) detoxification, little is known regarding the factors regulating the peroxisomal uptake, targeting, and metabolism of these lipids. Although in vitro data suggest that sterol carrier protein (SCP)-x plays an important role in branched-chain lipid oxidation, the full physiological significance of this peroxisomal enzyme is not completely clear. To begin to resolve this issue, SCP-x-null mice were generated by gene ablation of SCP-x from the SCP-x/SCP-2 gene and fed a phytol-enriched diet to characterize the effects of lipid overload in a system with minimal 2/3-oxoacyl-CoA thiolytic activity. It was shown that SCP-x gene ablation 1) did not result in reduced expression of SCP-2 (previously thought to be derived in considerable part by posttranslational cleavage of SCP-x); 2) increased expression levels of key enzymes involved in alpha- and beta-oxidation; and 3) altered lipid distributions, leading to decreased hepatic fatty acid and triglyceride levels. In response to dietary phytol, lack of SCP-x resulted in 1) accumulation of phytol metabolites despite substantial upregulation of hepatic peroxisomal and mitochondrial enzymes; 2) reduced body weight gain and fat tissue mass; and 3) hepatic enlargement, increased mottling, and necrosis. In summary, the present work with SCP-x gene-ablated mice demonstrates, for the first time, a direct physiological relationship between lack of SCP-x and decreased ability to metabolize branched-chain lipids.     

Liver fatty acid-binding protein gene ablation inhibits branched-chain fatty acid metabolism in cultured primary hepatocytes

Whereas the role of liver fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABP) in the uptake, transport, mitochondrial oxidation, and esterification of normal straight-chain fatty acids has been studied extensively, almost nothing is known regarding the function of L-FABP in peroxisomal oxidation and metabolism of branched-chain fatty acids. Therefore, phytanic acid (most common dietary branched-chain fatty acid) was chosen to address these issues in cultured primary hepatocytes isolated from livers of L-FABP gene-ablated (-/-) and wild type (+/+) mice. These studies provided three new insights: First, L-FABP gene ablation reduced maximal, but not initial, uptake of phytanic acid 3.2-fold. Initial uptake of phytanic acid uptake was unaltered apparently due to concomitant 5.3-, 1.6-, and 1.4-fold up-regulation of plasma membrane fatty acid transporter/translocase proteins (glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, fatty acid transport protein, and fatty acid translocase, respectively). Second, L-FABP gene ablation inhibited phytanic acid peroxisomal oxidation and microsomal esterification. These effects were consistent with reduced cytoplasmic fatty acid transport as evidenced by multiphoton fluorescence photobleaching recovery, where L-FABP gene ablation reduced the cytoplasmic, but not membrane, diffusional component of NBD-stearic acid movement 2-fold. Third, lipid analysis of the L-FABP gene-ablated hepatocytes revealed an altered fatty acid phenotype. Free fatty acid and triglyceride levels were decreased 1.9- and 1.6-fold, respectively. In summary, results with cultured primary hepatocytes isolated from L-FABP (+/+) and L-FABP (-/-) mice demonstrated for the first time a physiological role of L-FABP in the uptake and metabolism of branched-chain fatty acids.     

Variation in skin surface lipid composition among the Equidae

Skin surface lipids from Equus caballus, E. przewalskii, E. asinus, E. grevyi, E. hemionus onager and a mule (E. asinus/E. caballus) were analyzed in detail. In all species the surface lipid mixtures consisted of giant-ring lactones, cholesterol, cholesteryl esters and minor amounts of wax diesters. In E. caballus, the lactone hydroxyacids were entirely branched chained, while in E. asinus and E. grevyi they were almost exclusively straight chained. In E. przewalskii, the onager and the mule there were both straight and branched chain hydroxyacid lactones. These results are in harmony with published interpretations of the evolutionary relationships among Equus species.     

Estimation of short-chain fatty acid production from protein by human intestinal bacteria based on branched-chain fatty acid measurements

Abstract The importance of protein breakdown and amino acid fermentation in the overall economy of the large intestine has not been quantitated. We have therefore measured the production of branched chain-fatty acids (BCFA) both in vitro and in vivo in order to estimate the contribution of protein to fermentation.
In vitro batch-culture studies using human faecal inocula showed that short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) were the principal end products formed during the degradation of protein by human colonic bacteria. Approximately 30% of the protein broken down was converted to SCFA. Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) constituted 16% of the SCFA produced from bovine serum albumin and 21% of the SCFA generated when casein was the substrate. BCFA concentrations in gut contents taken from the human proximal and distal colons were on average, 4.6 and 6.3 mmol kg⁻¹ respectively, corresponding to 3.4% and 7.5% of the total SCFA. These results suggest that protein fermentation could potentially account for about 17% of the SCFA found in the caecum, and 38% of the SCFA produced in the sigmoid/rectum. Measurements of BCFA in portal and arterial blood taken from individuals undergoing emergency surgery indicated that net production of BCFA by the gut microflora was in the region of 11.1 mmol day⁻¹, which would require the breakdown of about 12 g of protein. These data highlight the role of protein in the colon and may explain why many colonic diseases affect mainly the distal bowel.     

Estimation of short-chain fatty acid production from protein by human intestinal bacteria based on branched-chain fatty acid measurements

Abstract The importance of protein breakdown and amino acid fermentation in the overall economy of the large intestine has not been quantitated. We have therefore measured the production of branched chain-fatty acids (BCFA) both in vitro and in vivo in order to estimate the contribution of protein to fermentation.
In vitro batch-culture studies using human faecal inocula showed that short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) were the principal end products formed during the degradation of protein by human colonic bacteria. Approximately 30% of the protein broken down was converted to SCFA. Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) constituted 16% of the SCFA produced from bovine serum albumin and 21% of the SCFA generated when casein was the substrate. BCFA concentrations in gut contents taken from the human proximal and distal colons were on average, 4.6 and 6.3 mmol kg⁻¹ respectively, corresponding to 3.4% and 7.5% of the total SCFA. These results suggest that protein fermentation could potentially account for about 17% of the SCFA found in the caecum, and 38% of the SCFA produced in the sigmoid/rectum. Measurements of BCFA in portal and arterial blood taken from individuals undergoing emergency surgery indicated that net production of BCFA by the gut microflora was in the region of 11.1 mmol day⁻¹, which would require the breakdown of about 12 g of protein. These data highlight the role of protein in the colon and may explain why many colonic diseases affect mainly the distal bowel.     

Biosynthesis of branched-chain fatty acid in bacilli: FabD (malonyl-CoA:ACP transacylase) is not essential for in vitro biosynthesis of branched-chain fatty acids

It was found that the partially purified beta-ketoacyl-ACP synthase of Bacillus insolitus did not require the addition of FabD (malonyl-CoA:ACP transacylase, MAT) for the activity assay. This study therefore examined the necessity of FabD protein for in vitro branched-chain fatty acid (BCFA) biosynthesis by crude fatty acid synthetases (FAS) of Bacilli. To discover the involvement of FabD in the BCFA biosynthesis, the protein was removed from the crude FAS by immunoprecipitation. The His-tag fusion protein FabD of Bacillus subtilis was expressed in Escherichia coli and used for the preparation of antibody. The rabbit antibody raised against the expressed fusion protein specifically recognized the FabD in the crude FAS of B. subtilis. Evaluation of the efficacy of the immunoprecipitation showed that a trace of FabD protein was present in the antibody-treated crude FAS. However, this complete removal of FabD from the crude FAS did not abolish its BCFA biosynthesis, but only reduced the level to 50-60% of the control level for acyl-CoA primer and to 80% for alpha-keto-beta-methylvalerate primer. Furthermore, the FabD concentration did not necessarily correlate with the MAT specific activity in the enzyme fractions, suggesting the presence of another enzyme source of MAT activity. This study, therefore, suggests that FabD is not the sole enzyme source of MAT for in vitro BCFA biosynthesis, and implies the existence of a functional connection between fatty acid biosynthesis and another metabolic pathway.     

In vivo analysis of straight-chain and branched-chain fatty acid biosynthesis in three actinomycetes

Abstract The starter units for branched-chain and straight-chain fatty acid biosynthesis was investigated in vivo in three actinomycetes using stable isotopes. Branched-chain fatty acids, which constitute the majority of the fatty acid pool, were confirmed to be biosynthesized using the amino acid degradation products methylbutyryl-CoA and isobutyryl-CoA as starter units. Straight-chain fatty acids were shown to be constructed using butyryl-CoA as a starter unit. Isomerization of the valine catabolite isobutyryl-CoA was shown to be only a minor source of this butyryl-CoA.     

Trichophyton mentagrophytes skin infections in laboratory animals as a cause of zoonosis

Recent sporadic distribution in Japan of Trichophyton mentagrophytes skin infections among laboratory rats or guinea pigs is reported. Six cases of laboratory infection by the fungus in humans who came in direct contact with the affected animals are also presented.Mating experiments with the causative fungi isolated from the animal and human skin lesions revealed that all but one sexually reactive strains belonged to the + mating type of Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii. A retrospective epidemiologic study ascertained that most of the affected rats were those derived from the same breeding colony of a certain experimental animal producing-co-operation in Saitama prefecture, where it had been produced by conventional methods of specific pathogen-free parental colony maintained in a barrier system.These two pieces of evidence suggest a possible transmission of the etiologic agent from some healthy carrier or infected hair-droppings in the environment to the breeding colony, during its breeding, or maintenance by the producer.