Carbon dioxide increases acid resistance in Escherichia coli

AIMS: To investigate how carbon dioxide affects the acid resistance of Escherichia coli. METHODS AND RESULTS: Escherichia coli W3110 was grown in minimal EG medium at pH 7.5, and cells were adapted at pH 5.5 at 37 degrees C with and without supply of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gases. The number of colonies grown on LB medium was measured after cells were challenged in minimal EG medium of pH 2.5 at 37 degrees C under various conditions. When carbon dioxide was supplied at both the acid adaptation and challenge stages, 94% of cells survived after the acid challenge for 1 h, while the survival rates were 50 and 67% when nitrogen gas and glutamate were supplied respectively. After the acid challenge for 3 h, the survival rate observed with the carbon dioxide gas supply was again 2.5-fold higher than those with the nitrogen gas supply. CONCLUSION: Carbon dioxide was shown to participate in the maintenance of high viability under acidic conditions. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides useful information for research into bacterial pathogenesis, fermentation and food preservation.     

质粒介导的大肠埃希菌对喹诺酮类抗菌药物耐药机制的研究

目的了解临床分离的耐环丙沙星的大肠埃希菌质粒介导的喹诺酮类耐药基因的携带情况,并进行相关耐药机制的分析。方法采用VITEK-2全自动微生物检测系统鉴定细菌,用K-B法检测细菌对16种常用抗生素的敏感性,采用聚合酶链反应检测喹诺酮类耐药基因qnrS、qnrA、qnrB、qepA和aac（6′）-Ib,并对阳性的aac（6′）-Ib结果进行测序分析。结果 30株耐环丙沙星的大肠埃希菌中,2株（6.67%）检出qepA基因,8株（26.67%）检出aac（6′）-Ib基因,经测序证实其中6株为aac（6）′-Ib-cr（20.0%）。未检出qnrS、qnrA和qnrB基因。结论对环丙沙星耐药的大肠埃希菌携带aac（6′）-Ib-cr和qepA基因,引起质粒介导的对喹诺酮类抗菌药物的低水平耐药。     

Antibody analysis of the localisation, expression and stability of HlyD, the MFP component of the E. coli haemolysin translocator

HlyD has a single transmembrane domain (residues 59-80) and a large periplasmic domain, and is essential for the secretion of haemolysin from Escherichia coli. Using an antibody raised against HlyD, the protein was localised to the cell envelope by immunofluorescence and to the cytoplasmic membrane by sucrose gradient analysis. We have examined the stability of this protein in the presence and absence of other putative components of the translocator, HlyB and TolC. HlyD is normally highly stable but in the absence of TolC, the steady-state level of HlyD is greatly reduced and the protein has a half-life at 37° C of 36 min. In the absence of HlyB, HlyD is also unstable and specific degradation products are detected, which co-fractionate with the inner membrane, indicating in this case limited cleavage at specific sites. However, the effect of removing both HlyB and TolC is not additive. On the contrary, in the absence of both HlyB and TolC the half-life of HlyD is approximately 110 min. This result shows that in the presence of HlyB removal of TolC renders HlyD more unstable than it is in the absence of both HlyB and TolC. This suggests that the presence of HlyB induces a structural change in HlyD. In addition, HlyB itself appears to be less stable in the absence of HlyD. These results are consistent with an interaction between HlyD/TolC and HlyB/HlyD. A derivative of HlyD, HlyD22, lacking the 40 N-terminal residues of HlyD assembles into the inner membrane displaying the same stability with and without HlyB as wild type HlyD does. This N-terminal region therefore appears to play no role in stable localisation but is involved in secretion, since HlyD22 is completely secretion defective. Modification of the C-terminus on the other hand completely destabilised the molecule and HlyD was not detectable in the envelope. Secretion of active haemolysin is limited to a brief period during mid to late exponential phase. In contrast, HlyD is apparently synthesised constitutively throughout the growth phase, demonstrating that the production of this component of the translocator is not the limiting factor for growth phase-dependent secretion. Received: 10 July 1998 / Accepted: 19 October 1998     

产超广谱β-内酰胺酶大肠埃希菌的耐药性分析

目的了解杭州市第一人民医院产ESBLs大肠埃希菌的发生比例及对临床上常用的24种抗菌药物的耐药率变化.方法收集2003 2004年该院各类临床标本中分离的大肠埃希菌,采用NCCLS推荐的表型确证试验方法检测ESBLs菌株;药敏试验采用纸片扩散法.结果2003年与2004年,产ESBLs的大肠埃希菌分离率分别为46.11%（184/399）、57.44%（386/672）（P=0.0003）;2年来,ESBLs阳性菌对临床常用的24种药物表现出较高的耐药性,耐药率上升非常显著（P=0.0005）;非产ESBLs大肠埃希菌对大多数抗菌药物仍保持较高的敏感率;但2004年ESBLs阴性的大肠埃希菌的耐药性,比2003年显著上升（χ^2=37.785,P=0.0005）.结论尽早开展产ESBLs菌的监测,合理使用抗菌药物,对于有效控制产ESBLs菌的播散与流行是一项重要措施.     

Amino-acid residues involved in the expression of the activity of Escherichia coli TolC

The Escherichia coli TolC, composed of 471 amino-acid residues, functions as a channel tunnel in the transport of various molecules across the outer membrane. We found previously that Leu-412, the 60th amino-acid residue from the carboxy terminal end, was crucial to the transport activity of TolC. Leu-412 is located in a domain which protrudes from the main body of TolC into the periplasm. Subsequent study indicated that the hydrophobicity generated by Leu-412 played an important role in the activity of TolC (H. Yamanaka, T. Nomura, N. Morisada, S. Shinoda, and K. Okamoto, Microb. Pathog. 33: 81-89, 2002). We predicted that other hydrophobic amino-acid residues around Leu-412 were also involved in the expression of the activity of TolC. To test this possibility, we substituted several hydrophobic residues around Leu-412, (Leu-3, Val-6, Leu-212, Leu-213, Leu-223, and Leu-224), with serine and examined the activity of these mutant TolCs. The result showed that Leu-3 is involved in the activity of TolC, but the other residues are not. The involvement of Leu-3 was confirmed by the residue deletion experiment. A subsequent point-mutational analysis of the residue showed that a hydrophobic side chain is required at position 3 for TolC to express its activity. As the distance between the alpha-carbons of Leu-3 and Leu-412 is just 7.45 angstroms, hydrophobic interaction between the two leucine residues might be involved in the activity of TolC.     

ICU病区大肠埃希菌中qnr基因的分布与耐药性的研究

目的调查温州医科大学附属第一医院ICU病区分离的大肠埃希菌基因的分布以及与耐药谱的关系,并初步探讨其在分子流行病学中的作用。方法收集2012年1-9月ICU病区分离的大肠埃希菌76株进行qnr基因检测,并通过DNA直接测序确定;分析qnr基因在ICU病区分离的大肠埃希菌的分布及其与耐药性的关系。结果根据PCR产物片段大小及测序分析,76株大肠埃希菌中共有qm基因阳性菌株46株,阳性率为60. 5% ;对阳性菌株进行DNA测序、BLAST比对,其中25株为qnrB基因,17株为qnrS基因阳性,12株基因阳性,未检测到qwC和qnrD基因。在46株qnr基因阳性菌株中有38株为产ESBL菌株,而在qnr阴性菌株中仅有5株ESBL阳性。结论该院ICU分离大肠埃希菌qnr基因携带严重,呈现出多重耐药性,多伴随呈现为产ESBL菌株。     

The contribution of tellurite resistance genes to the fitness of Escherichia coli uropathogenic strains

The presence of tellurite resistance gene operons has been reported in several human pathogens despite the fact that tellurium, as well as its soluble salts, are both rare in nature and are no longer in use as antimicrobial agents. We have introduced the cloned terWZA-F genes from an uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolate into another clinical E. coli isolate that was shown to be ter-gene free. The presence of the introduced genes increased the level of potassium tellurite resistance, as well as the level of resistance to oxidative stress mediated by hydrogen peroxide; and prolonged the ability of particular strains to survive in macrophages. We therefore propose that the contribution of tellurite resistance genes to oxidative stress resistance in bacteria is at least one reason for their presence in the genomes of a broad range of pathogenic microorganisms.     

2009—2017年大肠埃希菌临床分布及耐药性分析

目的了解大肠埃希菌(Escherichia coli,E.coli)临床分布及耐药情况,为制定预防措施及指导临床合理用药提供依据。方法对文山州人民医院分离的8 820株E.coli菌株进行分离、鉴定和描述性流行病学分析;同时,对被检出的产超广谱β-内酰胺酶(extended-spectrum β-lactamase, ESBLs)E.coli菌株进行药敏试验。结果 2012年产ESBLs菌株阳性率最高,达65.40%;2014年检测出E.coli株数1 721株,占19.51%;E.coli菌株科室分布,泌尿外科最多1 961株;标本类型以中段尿为主;年龄分布集中在>45~60岁组,检出2 433株,占27.59%;药敏试验显示,产ESBLs菌株对大多数抗生素耐药率明显高于非产ESBLs菌株,对抗生素的耐药性不断发生变化。结论 E.coli菌株检出率上升,产ESBLs菌株阳性率呈现先迅速上升后有缓慢下降的趋势。E.coli耐药形势严峻,医院应加强监测及耐药性分析,严格执行抗生素使用分级制度,定期反馈临床监测数据,为医生合理使用抗生素提供科学依据。     

Propargylglycine-based antimicrobial compounds are targets of TolC-dependent efflux systems in Escherichia coli

A library of novel l-propargylglycine-based compounds were designed and synthesized with the goal of inhibiting the growth of Gram-negative bacteria by targeting LpxC, a highly conserved Gram-negative enzyme which performs an essential step in the lipid A biosynthetic pathway. These compounds were designed with and without a nucleoside and had varying tail structures, which modulate their lipophilicity. The synthetic scheme was improved compared to previous methods: a methyl ester intermediate was converted to a hydroxamic acid, which obviated the need for a THP protecting group and improved the yields and purity of the final compounds. Antimicrobial activity was observed for non-nucleoside compounds containing a phenyl propargyl ether tail (5) or a biphenyl tail (6). An MIC of 16 µg/mL was achieved for 6 in Escherichia coli, but inhibition was only possible in the absence of TolC-mediated efflux. Compound 5 had an initial MIC >160 µg/mL in E. coli. Enhancing outer membrane permeability or eliminating efflux reduced the MIC modestly to 100 µg/mL and 80 µg/mL, respectively. These results highlight the importance of hydrophobicity of this class of compounds in developing LpxC inhibitors, as well as the design challenge of avoiding multidrug efflux activity.     

Identifying Escherichia coli genes involved in intrinsic multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance is a major cause of clinical failure in treating bacterial infections. Increasing evidence suggests that bacteria can resist multiple antibiotics through intrinsic mechanisms that rely on gene products such as efflux pumps that expel antibiotics and special membrane proteins that block the penetration of drug molecules. In this study, Escherichia coli was used as a model system to explore the genetic basis of intrinsic multidrug resistance. A random mutant library was constructed in E. coli EC100 using transposon mutagenesis. The library was screened by growth measurement to identify the mutants with enhanced or reduced resistance to chloramphenicol (Cm). Out of the 4,000 mutants screened, six mutants were found to be more sensitive to Cm and seven were more resistant compared to the wild-type EC100. Mutations in 12 out of the 13 mutants were identified by inverse polymerase chain reaction. Mutants of the genes rob, garP, bipA, insK, and yhhX were more sensitive to Cm compared to the wild-type EC100, while the mutation of rhaB, yejM, dsdX, nagA, yccE, atpF, or htrB led to higher resistance. Overexpression of rob was found to increase the resistance of E. coli biofilms to tobramycin (Tob) by 2.7-fold, while overexpression of nagA, rhaB, and yccE significantly enhanced the susceptibility of biofilms by 2.2-, 2.5-, and 2.1-fold respectively.     

Metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for the production of fumaric acid

Fumaric acid is a naturally occurring organic acid that is an intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Fungal species belonging to Rhizopus have traditionally been employed for the production of fumaric acid. In this study, Escherichia coli was metabolically engineered for the production of fumaric acid under aerobic condition. For the aerobic production of fumaric acid, the iclR gene was deleted to redirect the carbon flux through the glyoxylate shunt. In addition, the fumA, fumB, and fumC genes were also deleted to enhance fumaric acid formation. The resulting strain was able to produce 1.45 g/L of fumaric acid from 15 g/L of glucose in flask culture. Based on in silico flux response analysis, this base strain was further engineered by plasmid‐based overexpression of the native ppc gene, encoding phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PPC), from the strong tac promoter, which resulted in the production of 4.09 g/L of fumaric acid. Additionally, the arcA and ptsG genes were deleted to reinforce the oxidative TCA cycle flux, and the aspA gene was deleted to block the conversion of fumaric acid into L ‐aspartic acid. Since it is desirable to avoid the use of inducer, the lacI gene was also deleted. To increase glucose uptake rate and fumaric acid productivity, the native promoter of the galP gene was replaced with the strong trc promoter. Fed‐batch culture of the final strain CWF812 allowed production of 28.2 g/L fumaric acid in 63 h with the overall yield and productivity of 0.389 g fumaric acid/g glucose and 0.448 g/L/h, respectively. This study demonstrates the possibility for the efficient production of fumaric acid by metabolically engineered E. coli. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2013; 110: 2025–2034. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Amino acid supplementation decreases plasmid retention in Escherichia coli

The effect of amino acid supplementation on plasmid stability in Escherichia coli B/r was tested experimentally. Comparisons of experimental results to computer-predicted values were made using a detailed, structured single-cell model. The plasmid, pDW17 (a pBR322 derivative with a mutated tac promoter controlling the beta-lactamase gene), was used. In chemostat cultures, the amino acid supplemented cultures were always less stable than those grown in minimal medium. This effect was not a growth rate effect, as increasing growth rate imsproves stability for both cultures in minimal medium and in amino acid supplemented medium. The computer model also predicted a decrease in stability due to amino acid supplementation. The model also predicts that amino acid supplementation, combined with moderately strong plasmid-encoded protein expresion, results in a depletion of low-molecular-weight organics compared with plasmid-free cells. In minimal medium the same level of plasmid-encoded protein synthesis results in a strong reduction in amino acid pools compared with plasmid-free cells. With amino acid supplementation the growth differential between plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells may be due to an "energy limitation," while in minimal medium the size of the growth rate differential may be due to a "building block" limitation. (c) 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Characterization of typical and atypical enteroaggregative Escherichia coli in Kagoshima,Japan: biofilm formation and acid resistance

EAEC is increasingly recognized as an emerging enteric pathogen. Typical EAEC expressing the AggR regulon have been proven to be an important cause of childhood diarrhea in industrialized countries as well as in the developing world, while atypical EAEC without this regulon have not been thoroughly investigated. To investigate the bacteriological characteristics of EAEC, including both typical and atypical strains in Kagoshima, Japan, 2417 E. coli strains from Japanese children with diarrhea were screened by a quantitative biofilm assay to detect possible EAEC strains, resulting in the identification of 102 (4.2%) of these strains by the HEp‐2 cell adherence test. Virulence gene patterns, PFGE analysis and O‐serogrouping demonstrated the heterogeneity of the EAEC. The EAEC strains were classified into two groups: typical EAEC with aggR (74.5%, 76/102) and atypical EAEC without aggR (25.5%, 26/102). There was no significant difference between the typical EAEC strains (median OD₅₇₀= 0.73) and the atypical strains (median OD₅₇₀= 0.61) in biofilm formation (P= 0.17). Incidences of resistance against ampicillin, cefotaxime and tetracycline were significantly higher in the typical EAEC strains than the atypical EAEC strains (84.2% vs. 53.8%, 36.8% vs. 7.7% and 93.4% vs. 73.1%, respectively, P < 0.05). The typical EAEC strains showed significantly higher resistance ratios against HCl and lactate than the atypical strains (94.7% vs. 61.5% and 92.1% vs. 57.7%, respectively, P < 0.001). To investigate the pathogenicity of not only typical but also atypical EAEC, further bacteriological and epidemiologic studies including atypical EAEC are needed.     

代谢工程改造大肠杆菌提高乙醇酸产率

乙醇酸(Glycolate)是一种在工业上有多种用途的重要化合物。本研究首先在大肠杆菌MG1655(DE3)中敲除了ldh A(乳酸脱氢酶),获得菌株Mgly1,作为出发菌株。然后通过调节乙醇酸合成途径的关键酶——异柠檬酸裂解酶(ace A)、乙醛酸还原酶(ycd W)、异柠檬酸脱氢酶激酶/磷酸化酶(ace K)的表达水平,得到乙醇酸产率为0.24 g/g葡萄糖(占理论产率的28.2%)。过量表达柠檬酸合成酶(glt A),乙醇酸产率提高到0.326 g/g葡萄糖(占理论产率的38.3%)。然后在Mgly1中敲除了glc B和ace B(苹果酸合成酶),减少了乙醇酸合成的前体乙醛酸的消耗。最终获得的工程菌株Mgly335乙醇酸产率达到0.522 g/g葡萄糖(占理论产率的61.4%)。     

Transposon mutagenesis identifies genes which control antimicrobial drug tolerance in stationary-phase Escherichia coli

Tolerance to antimicrobial agents is a universal phenomenon in bacteria which are no longer multiplying or whose growth rate slows. Since slowly multiplying bacteria occur in clinical infections, extended periods of antimicrobial chemotherapy are needed to eradicate these organisms and to achieve cure. In this study, the molecular basis of antibiotic tolerance was investigated using transposon mutagenesis. We screened 5000 Escherichia coli Tn10Cam mutants for reduction of kanamycin tolerance in late stationary phase and found that 4935 mutants were able to grow to late stationary phase. Reduced tolerance was observed in nine mutants which became sensitive to killing by kanamycin. The mutant KS639 was the most sensitive one to kanamycin, and its genome was disrupted in an intergenic region which lies between aldB and yiaW open reading frames. This mutant showed increased sensitivity not only to kanamycin but also to gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and rifampicin. Reduced tolerance of KS639 to kanamycin was also observed in a murine thigh infection model. P1 transduction to the wild type strains confirmed that the intergenic region was responsible for the tolerance of the bacterium to antibiotics. Using PCR-directed one-step gene replacement, we inactivated the genes aldB, yiaW and yiaV. We also deleted the intergenic region. There was no difference in kanamycin tolerance between each mutant (DeltaaldB, DeltayiaW and DeltayiaV) and the parental strain. But the mutant lacking the intergenic region showed reduced tolerance to kanamycin. These data suggest that the intergenic region between aldB and yiaW genes may be involved in tolerance to antimicrobial agents in E. coli. Furthermore, they show that it is important in murine infection during antibiotic treatment and lead to a faster kill of the mutant bacteria.     

Acetic acid formation in Escherichia coli fermentation

Theoretical analysis of cellulase product inhibition (by cellobiose and glucose) has been performed in terms of the mathematical model for enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. The analysis showed that even in those cases when consideration of multienzyme cellulase system as one enzyme (cellulase) or two enzymes (cellulase and beta-glucosidase) is valid, double-reciprocal plots, usually used in a product inhibition study, may be nonlinear, and different inhibition patterns (noncompetitive, competitive, or mixed type) may be observed. Inhibition pattern depends on the cellulase binding constant, enzyme concentration, maximum adsorption of the enzyme (cellulose surface area accessible to the enzyme), the range in which substrate concentration is varied, and beta-glucosidase activity. A limitation of cellulase adsorption by cellulose surface area that may occur at high enzyme/substrate ratio is the main reason for nonlinearity of double-reciprocal plots. Also, the results of calculations showed that material balance by substrate, which is usually neglected by researchers studying cellulase product inhibition, must be taken into account in kinetic analysis even in those cases when the enzyme concentration is rather low. (c) 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

循环利用重组大肠杆菌细胞转化合成丁二酸

研究了回收丁二酸发酵液中的大肠杆菌进行细胞转化的可行性,以转化率和生产效率为指标,考察了不同菌体浓度、底物浓度、pH调节剂对细胞转化的影响。发酵结果表明大肠杆菌可以在仅含有葡萄糖和pH调节剂的水环境中转化生产丁二酸,并确定了最佳的转化条件为:细胞浓度(OD600)50,底物浓度40g/L,缓冲盐为MgCO3。基于优化好的条件,在7L发酵罐中进行重复批次转化,第1次转化的转化率和生产效率分别达到91%和3.22g/(L·h),第2次转化的生产效率和转化率达到了86%和2.04g/(L·h),第3次转化的转化率和生产效率分别达到了83%和1.82g/(L·h)。