THE MIGRATION PATTERNS OF QUELEA QUELEA IN AFRICA

Red-billed Queleas migrate, at the beginning of the wet season, away from their dry-season concentration areas and towards areas where rain started several weeks earlier. Considerable fat deposits are accumulated for this “early-rains migration”. The direction taken by the migrants, the distance they must fly, and the timing of the movement are dependent upon the timing of the rains and the way the rain-front moves. On the return “breeding migration” individuals in breeding condition stop to breed (in large aggregations) wherever they find conditions suitable for the founding of colonies. The location of the colonies can vary greatly from year to year. The migrations performed by several populations, in different parts of Africa, are predicted on the basis of general rainfall patterns, and the predictions tested against the facts available. There is evidence that individual females are able to produce a succession of broods in the same breeding season, at colonies which may be very far apart, and probably with different mates. The adaptive value of this “itinerant breeding” is discussed. Many other bird species, which breed at a particular phase of the wet-season/dry-season cycle, are expected to perform similar “itinerant breeding”.     

It’s All in the Timing: Birth Seasonality and Infant Survival in <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Eulemur rubriventer</Emphasis>

Highly seasonal breeding has been considered one of the keys to understanding Malagasy primate socioecology. Strict seasonal breeding may be particularly critical for Malagasy primates because they live in such energetically challenging seasonal environments. Lemurs also live in highly unpredictable environments, and there is growing evidence that reproductive timing may be mediated by additional factors, suggesting that more relaxed breeding seasonality is adaptive in some cases. I tested the adaptive breadth of the birth peak in Eulemur rubriventer, which breed in several different months. I describe reproduction in the species by determining the timing and extent of the birth season (period in which all births occur) and birth peak (period in which the majority of births occur); test whether relaxed reproductive seasonality might increase reproductive success by comparing infant mortality within and outside the birth peak; and model the extent to which fruit availability has an influence on the timing of reproduction. I collected birth data on 5 groups in 2003–2005, which I combined with demographic data that D. Overdorff collected from 5 focal groups and additional censused groups between 1988 and 1996. Thirty births occurred in 8 different months. Births were significantly seasonal, with a unimodal birth peak in late August/September/October, and a mean birth date of October 11. Twenty-three births (76.7%) occurred within 54 d (14.79%) of the year. No births occurred May–July, indicating that conceptions did not occur from late December through late February, and cycling (estimated using gestation length) did not occur until ca. 101 d after the austral summer solstice (December 21). Of 22 infants followed regularly, 18 were born in the birth peak, of which 2 died (11%). All 4 infants born out of season died. Based on fruit availability, I calculated a Theoretical Overlap index (T), which indicated a 3-mo window with optimal food conditions for reproduction. This window corresponded to the timing and breadth of the birth peak in Eulemur rubriventer. These results indicate that a breeding season >3 mo within a given year is not adaptive in the species, likely due in large part to the availability of fruit during key reproductive stages, particularly before breeding.     

Life-history strategies of Australian lizards: a comparison between the tropics and the temperate zone

Summary Previous studies have suggested that tropical and temperate-zone lizards may differ fundamentally in life histories. We tested the applicability of this idea to Australian species by comparing temperate-zone species of agamid and scincid lizards with their congeners from the seasonal tropics. Data were derived from dissection of 1,941 specimens and from published information. Clutch size and egg size were positively correlated with mean maternal body size in most lizard species from both climatic zones. Mean body size of the lizards studies did not differ between the tropics and the temperate zone, nor did egg or hatchling size. However, tropical skinks showed considerably (approximately 20%) lower clutch size and relative clutch mass than did temperate-zone skinks. This difference was partly due to the higher incidence of species with low, invariant clutch size in the tropical lizard fauna (as seen in other continents as well), but primarily due to a trend for lineages (especially genera) with relatively high fecundity to be more common in the temperate zone than in the tropics. In contrast to studies on African lizards, our data suggested that modification of clutch size between areas has not occurred within genera: congeneric species from the tropics and temperate zone did not differ in clutch size. Production of more than one clutch per annum by individual females was common in both climatic zones. Tropical lizards may differ from temperate-zone species in showing higher reproductive frequencies, more rapid growth and earlier maturation. However, most of these effects may be due to phenotypic responses to environmental conditions (especially longer annual activity season), rather than to genetically based lifehistory adaptations.     

Delayed timing of breeding as a cost of reproduction

Timing of breeding is a trait with considerable individual variation, often closely linked to fitness because of seasonal declines in reproduction. The drivers of this variation have received much attention, but how reproductive costs may influence the timing of subsequent breeding has been largely unexplored. We examined a population of northern wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe to compare three groups of individuals that differed in their timing of breeding termination and reproductive effort to investigate how these factors may carry over to influence reproductive timing and reproductive output in the following season. Compared to females that bred successfully, females that put in less effort and terminated breeding early due to nest failure tended to arrive and breed earlier in year 2 (mean advancement = 2.2 and 3.3 d respectively). Females that spent potentially more effort and terminated breeding later due to production of a replacement clutch after nest failure, arrived later than other females in year 2. Reproductive output (number of fledglings) in year 2 differed between the three groups as a result of group‐level differences in the timing of breeding in combination with the general seasonal decline in reproductive output. Our study shows that the main cost of reproduction was apparent in the timing of arrival and breeding in this migratory species. Hence, reproductive costs can arise through altered timing of breeding since future reproductive success (including adult survival) is often dependent on the timing of breeding in seasonal systems.     

Physiological ecology of frillneck lizards in a seasonal tropical environment

The frillneck lizard, Chlamydosaurus kingii, is a conspicuous component of the fauna of the wetdry tropics of northern Australia during the wet season, but it is rarely seen in the dry season. Previous studies have demonstrated that during the dry season the field metabolic rate (FMR) is only about one-quarter of the wet-season rate, and one factor involved in this seasonal drop is a change in the behavioural thermoregulation of the species such that lower body temperatures (T _bs) are selected during dry-season days. Here we examine other factors that could be responsible for the seasonal change in FMR: standard metabolic rates (SMR) and activity. Samples from stomach flushing revealed that the lizards in the dry season continued to feed, but the volume of food was half as much as in the wet season. SMR in the laboratory was 30% less in the dry season. During the dry season, the energy expended by the lizards is 60.4 kJ kg^-1 day^-1 less than during the wet season. Combining laboratory and field data, we determined the relative contribution of the factors involved in this energy savings: 10% can be attributed to lower nighttime T _b, 12% is attributable to lower daytime T _b, 12% is attributable to decreased metabolism, and the remaining 66% is attributable to other activities (including e.g. locomotion, reproductive costs, digestion). Calculations indicate that if FMR did not drop in the dry season the lizards would not survive on the observed food intake during this season. Seasonal analysis of blood plasma and urine indicated an accumulation of some electrolytes during the dry season suggesting modest levels of water stress.     

Distribution and abundance of magpie geese,Anseranas semipalmata,in the Alligator Rivers Region,Northern Territory

Aerial surveys from 1981 to 1984 were used to identify monthly changes in the abundance of magpie geese on Jive floodplains in the Alligator Rivers Region of the monsoonal Northern Territory, and ground surveys were conducted during the same period on one of the plains to provide more detailed distributional information. The aerial surveys showed that the Magela floodplain was inhabited by few geese during the wet season (November-March), but that numbers then increased to an estimated average peak of 80 000 in the late dry season. The Nourlangie floodplain and Boggy Plain (a large backswamp of the South Alligator floodplain) exhibited a similar pattern, except that the peaks occurred 2–3 months before the end of the dry season and comprised many more geese (an estimated average of 350 000 birds). In contrast, geese were uncommon on the East Alligator floodplain except during the wet season, and densities and numbers were lower than on the three previous plains. The Cooper floodplain was occupied intermittently, and numbers and densities were always relatively low. Geese appeared to return from their breeding localities to the floodplains of the Alligator Rivers Region progressively during the dry season, concentrating first on the extensive Eleocharis swamps of the Nourlangie floodplain and then waiting out the remainder of the dry on the substantial permanent waters of the Magela floodplain and other nearby wetlands. Ground surveys on the Magela floodplain suggested that geese were highly mobile, apparently seeking suitable nesting habitat in the late wet season, and then a sequence of feeding areas during the dry season. Aerial surveys underestimated densities; on the basis of ground surveys, average peak numbers on the Magela plain were calculated to be 500 000. We estimate that the Alligator Rivers Region supported an average of about 1.6 million geese in the dry season, but very many fewer during the wet season.     

Environmental and social cues can be used in combination to develop sustainable breeding techniques for goat reproduction in the subtropics

Goat breeds from subtropical latitudes show different annual reproductive cycles. Some of them display large seasonal variations in their annual breeding season, while others display a moderate seasonality or sexual activity all year round. This reproductive seasonality causes seasonality of milk, cheese and meat productions and, as a consequence, induces wide variation in producer incomes. To solve this problem and provide methods allowing producers to breed animals during the anestrous period and stabilize production all year round, it is necessary to have a deep knowledge of their annual sexual activity and to identify the environmental factors controlling the timing of the annual reproductive cycle. Then, it is possible to build on these knowledge sustainable breeding techniques adapted to the environmental, economic and social characteristics of the local breeding system. In this review, I will illustrate this strategy through the example of our experiments in subtropical goats. First, we determined the characteristics of the annual breeding season in both male and female goats. Second, we identified the photoperiod as the major environmental factor controlling the timing of this annual breeding season. Third, we used the photoperiod to stimulate indirectly the sexual behavior of does. Indeed, we used photoperiodic treatments to stimulate the sexual activity of bucks during the non-breeding season. These sexually active male goats were then used to induce and synchronize the estrous behavior and ovulatory activity of anestrous females in confined or grazing conditions by using the 'male effect'. Under subtropical conditions, these results constitute an original manner to control the reproductive activity of local goats using the photoperiod combined with the 'male effect.'     

Weak breeding seasonality of a songbird in a seasonally arid tropical environment arises from individual flexibility and strongly seasonal moult

In some tropical birds, breeding seasonality is weak at the population level, even where there are predictable seasonal peaks in environmental conditions. It therefore remains unclear whether individuals are adapted to breeding at specific times of the year or flexible to variable environmental conditions. We tested whether the relative year‐round breeding activity of the Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus arises due to within‐individual variability in breeding dates. We collected data from 827 birds via mist‐netting over 2 years with corresponding local weather data. We used a combination of climate envelope and generalized linear mixed models to explore how the timing of breeding is influenced by time of year, individual variation, rainfall and temperature in a West African savannah where seasonal precipitation determines annual variation in environmental conditions. We also pooled 65 breeding records from 19 individuals recorded between 2006 and 2017 based on brood patch occurrence and behavioural observation to compare within‐individual and population variability in breeding dates. We show that the breeding dates of individuals may be as variable as for the population as a whole. However, we observed a seasonal peak in juvenile occurrence that varies significantly between years. Models suggest no relationship between nesting and moult, and within‐year variation in rainfall and temperature, and birds were unlikely to breed during moult but may do so afterwards. Moult was very seasonal, correlating strongly with day length. We suggest that because environmental conditions permit year‐round breeding, and because reproductive output is subject to high predation risk, there is probably a weak selection for individuals to match breeding with variable peak conditions in the environment. Instead, moult, which always occurs annually and successfully, is probably under strong selection to match variable peak conditions in the environment so that long‐term survival ensures future reproduction.     

Timing of breeding in variable environments: tropical birds as model systems

Animals need to adjust reproductive decisions to environmental seasonality. In contrast to species from the well-studied temperate zones, little is known for tropical birds about the environmental cues that stimulate reproductive activity and the physiological mechanisms that regulate reproduction. I am investigating the environmental and endocrine mechanisms that underlie the timing of reproduction in spotted antbirds from the near-equatorial Panamanian rainforest and in small ground finches from the equatorial arid Galápagos islands. Spotted antbirds live in a fairly predictable seasonal environment and show regular changes in gonad sizes and some reproductive hormones. Despite the small annual variation in photoperiod close to the equator, these birds can measure slight photoperiodic increases and use it to initiate reproductive activity. Spotted antbirds also respond to seasonal changes in food availability, which allows them to flexibly adjust gonad growth to environmental conditions. Testosterone is involved in regulating song and aggressive behavior in these year-round territorial birds, although it can remain at low plasma levels throughout the year. In contrast, small ground finches exposed to a rather unpredictable climate on Galápagos appear to grow their gonads whenever heavy rains fall and have regressed gonads during other times of the year. The lack of a physiological preparation for the breeding season and their response to short-term cues related to rainfall indicate a striking flexibility in the regulation of breeding in small ground finches. I suggest that tropical birds can serve as model systems to study the physiological adaptations to different environments. Unraveling the neuroendocrine mechanisms behind the flexibility in reproductive timing will clarify whether differences found between temperate and tropical birds represent variations of the same basic mechanism or instead reflect a fundamental divergence in physiological control systems.     

Water resource partitioning,stem xylem hydraulic properties,and plant water use strategies in a seasonally dry riparian tropical rainforest

This study investigated seasonal variation in the origin of water used by plants in a riparian tropical rainforest community and explored linkages between plant water source, plant xylem hydraulic conductivity and response to the onset of dry conditions. The study focused on five co-dominant canopy species, comprising three tree species (Doryphora aromatica, Argyrodendron trifoliolatum, Castanospora alphandii) and two climbing palms (Calamus australis and Calamus caryotoides). Stable isotope ratios of oxygen in water (¹⁸O) from soil, groundwater, stream water and plant xylem measured in the wet season and the subsequent dry season revealed water resource partitioning between species in the dry season. Measurement of stem-area-specific hydraulic conductivity (K_S) in the wet season and subsequent dry season showed a significant dry-season loss of K_S in three of the five species (Castanospora alphandii, Calamus australis and C. caryotoides) and a decrease in mean K_S for all species. This loss of hydraulic conductivity was positively correlated with the difference between wet-season and dry-season midday leaf water potentials and with leaf carbon isotope discrimination, indicating that plants that were less susceptible to loss of conductivity had greater control over transpiration rate and were more water-use efficient.     

SEASONAL CHANGES IN NECTAR-FEEDING BY BIRDS AT ZARIA, NIGERIA

Nectar-feeding of birds was recorded during a phenological study of the woody vegetation at Zaria in the Northern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Throughout the dry season when it is in a non-breeding state, the Scarlet-breasted Sunbird Nectarinia senegalensis concentrates on the ornithophilous plants which flower in an overlapping sequence, and exploits the smaller-flowered species less frequently. As the flowering of the ornithophilous species decreases at the end of the dry season, the range of other plants exploited increases but, in the early rains as the flowering of the indigenous plants tails off, the sunbird switches to ornamental exotics and the indigenous, shrubby parasite, Tapinanthus globiferus. The bird is more conspicuously insectivorous during the wet season when it breeds. The Pygmy Sunbird Anthreptes platura is a breeding, dry-season visitor which exploits a somewhat different range of small-flowered, mainly entomophilous species and some exotics but also takes nectar from those ornithophilous species it can exploit, as well as the chiropterophilous Parkia clappertoniana. The bulk of the breeding population leaves the district before the flowering of the indigenous plant tails off. The five other species of sunbird recorded in the district are either very rare residents or more numerous wet-season visitors and passage migrants for which records of nectar-feeding are too few to draw conclusions about seasonal changes but the wet-season visitors appear to rely on the garden exotics in the comparative absence of flowering indigenous plants. Nectar-feeding on Bombax costatum and Parkia clappertoniana, where nectar is readily accessible and present in relatively large quantities, was noted for IS species of non-nectariniid birds, some of which were regular visitors. Some examples of flower consumption probably related to nectar-feeding are also mentioned.     

Changes in ovarian morphology and hormone concentrations associated with reproductive seasonality in wild large Japanese field mice (Apodemus speciosus)

Wild large Japanese field mice (Apodemus speciosus) responses to cyclic seasonal changes are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. However, the detailed regulation of oogenesis in the ovary during the seasonal reproductive cycle in wild large Japanese field mice has not been studied. We assessed the dynamics and changes in ovarian morphology and hormone concentrations associated with reproductive seasonality throughout the year. The stages of the ovarian morphological breeding cycle of wild large Japanese field mice were classified as breeding, transition, and non-breeding periods during the annual reproductive cycle. Measurement of blood estradiol concentrations throughout the year showed that the levels in September and October were higher than those in other months. It is presumed that follicle development starts from a blood estradiol concentration of 38.4 ± 27.1 pg/mL, which marks a shift from the transitional season to the breeding season, followed by the transition to the non-breeding season at 26.1 ± 11.6 pg/mL. These results suggest that seasonal follicle development in wild rodents is correlated with estradiol regulation. We consider this species to be an alternative animal model for studying seasonal reproductive changes and the effects of environmental changes.     

Variation in the timing of the reproductive season among breeds of sheep in relation to differences in photoperiodic synchronization of an endogenous rhythm.

Photoperiod may regulate seasonal reproduction either by providing the primary driving force for the reproductive transitions or by synchronizing an endogenous reproductive rhythm. This study evaluated whether breed differences in timing of the reproductive seasons of Finnish Landrace (Finn) and Galway ewes are due to differences in photoperiodic drive of the reproductive transitions or to differences in photoperiodic synchronization of the endogenous rhythm of reproductive activity. The importance of decreasing photoperiod after the summer solstice in determining the onset and duration of the breeding season was tested by housing ewes from the summer solstice in either a simulated natural photoperiod or a fixed summer-solstice photoperiod (18 h light:6 h dark; summer-solstice hold). Onset of the breeding season within each breed did not differ between these photoperiodic treatments, but Galway ewes began and ended their breeding season earlier than Finn ewes. The duration of the breeding season was shorter in Galway ewes on summer-solstice hold than on simulated natural photoperiod; duration did not differ between photoperiodic treatments in Finn ewes. The requirement for increasing photoperiod after the winter solstice for initiation of anoestrus was tested by exposing ewes from the winter solstice to either a simulated natural photoperiod or a winter-solstice hold photoperiod (8.5 h light:15.5 h dark). Onset of anoestrus within each breed did not differ between these photoperiodic treatments, but the time of this transition differed between breeds. These observations suggest that genetic differences in timing of the breeding season in Galway and Finn ewes do not reflect differences in the extent to which photoperiod drives the reproductive transitions, because neither breed requires shortening days to enter the breeding season or lengthening days to end it at appropriate times. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that photoperiod synchronizes an endogenous rhythm of reproductive activity in both breeds and that genetic differences in timing of the breeding season reflect differences in photoperiodic synchronization of this rhythm.     

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE WATTLED PLOVER AFRIBYX SENEGALLUS (LINNAEUS)

The question of how aridity might influence avian clutch size, through the influences of rainfall seasonality and environmental stochasticity (unpredictability), has received little attention. A marked east-west gradient in aridity across South Africa provides a unique opportunity to test for such influences. Using an extensive collection of nest records for 106 terrestrial bird species from the South African Nest Record Card Scheme, we tested three predictions related to rainfall seasonality and stochasticity. Analyses were conducted at two levels, the first examining each species independently, and the second grouping species into five dietary guilds. The first prediction, that clutch size should generally increase with higher rainfall seasonality (i.e. higher seasonal fluctuation of food availability), was supported, particularly in the most arid environments where food abundance is more closely linked to rainfall. Controlling for rainfall seasonality, the second prediction, that clutch size should generally decrease as a bet-hedging strategy in arid, stochastic environments, was also supported. Although the timing of the rainy season differs among regions in South Africa (winter, early summer, later summer, year-round), birds primarily nest during spring. The relative timing of rainfall and breeding is expected to have different consequences for seasonal variation in clutch size among rainfall regions. The third prediction, of different patterns of seasonal variation in clutch size between rainfall regions, was also supported. In the winter and early-summer rainfall regions, early-nesting birds (breeding with or soon after the rains) generally had a larger clutch size than late-nesting birds. In the late-summer rainfall region, early-nesting birds (breeding well before the rains) had a smaller clutch size than late-nesting birds.     

Evaluation of four survey methods for estimating elephant densities

Aerial sample survey, foot survey, vehicle survey, dry-season droppings count and wet-season droppings count were used for estimating elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) densities on the Nazinga Game Ranch, Burkina Faso and evaluated against the results of an aerial total count. Results of all survey techniques except the dry-season dropping count method had low accuracies relative to the aerial total count. It is concluded that the droppings count method was the best and most cost-effective survey technique available for estimation of elephant densities.     

Temperature‐correlated shifts in the timing of egg‐laying in House Finches Haemorhous mexicanus

Although temperature‐correlated shifts in the timing of egg‐laying have been documented in numerous bird species, the vast majority of species examined to date have been those that breed in Europe and have an animal‐based diet during breeding. However, given that the timing of breeding can be driven, either in the proximate or in the ultimate sense, by seasonal fluctuations in food availability, the relationship between temperature and laying may differ with diet. Here, we report on patterns of reproductive timing in House Finches Haemorhous mexicanus, a North American species that breeds on a primarily seed‐based diet. Analysing nest records from House Finches in California spanning more than a century, we found that egg‐laying occurred significantly earlier in warmer springs. We also found that although the timing of egg‐laying does not show long‐term changes in most of California, in the hottest region of the state (the southeast desert basin) it has advanced significantly.     

Form and function of the tongue in agamid lizards with comments on its phylogenetic significance

The morphology of the tongue of agamid lizards is reviewed and discussed in the context of its functional and phylogenetic significance. It is shown that in several features, including the development of the central musculature of the tongue into a ring muscle and the presence of a genioglossus internus muscle in adults, the tongue in most agamids is derived relative to that in other squamates. In some features, such as the vertical connective tissue septa, agamids share primitive features with Sphenodon. Some conditions found in agamids are also found in anoline iguanids. Two genera, Uromastyx and Leiolepis, differ significantly from other agamids in intrinsic tongue musculature. The functional significance of the unique tongue morphology is that agamids utilize a different mechanism of tongue protrusion from that of other lizards. This mechanism involves the production of force against the lingual process, leading to an anterior slide of the tongue, and is detailed in this paper. Finally, I discuss the mechanical basis for the transformation series of tongue protrusion mechanisms from agamids to chamaeleonids. It is suggested that the mechanism of tongue protrusion in chamaeleonids is not unique, but is a highly derived state of the condition found in agamids.     

On the demography of Rattus sordidus colletti in monsoonal Australia

Results of a mark-release study of Rattus sordidus colletti (Gould) on sub-coastal, treeless plains in the monsoonal north of the Northern Territory of Australia are given for 5 years. R. s. colletti is the dominant component of the small mammal fauna of these plains, with only small numbers of Melomys spp. and Planigale maculata also occurring. Two classes of peak densities were observed. Localized peaks resulted from non-breeding adult R. s. colletti refuging onto the marginally higher levees during flooding of the plains, and also from refuging into a lower-lying area at the end of a dry-season drought. Generalized peak densities resulted from peaks in reproductive effort. In 1972 and 1974, reproduction was confined to the period immediately following the monsoons, but in 1973 breeding continued throughout the dry season, following unseasonal rain in June. Thus, generalized peak densities were observed in one year at the beginning of the dry season, and in another at its end. The relatively shallower flooding and mildness of the 1972–3 wet season resulted in commencement of breeding earlier in 1973 than in 1974, while rapid severe flooding of the plains in December 1974 resulted in mass mortality and failure of the refuging populations of adults to recolonize the lower plains in 1975. R. s. colletti remained extremely rare until November 1976, when the study was terminated. The good conditions which allowed reproduction during the dry season of 1973 were reflected in rapid growth rates at that time, compared with rates approaching zero in the 1974 dry season. R. s. colletti is the most fecund form of Australian Rattus species. This high fecundity appears to compensate for the restriction, by dry-season aridity and wet-season flooding, of the breeding season in most years to a short period immediately following the monsoons. In unusual years with rainfall during the dry season, the high fecundity gives R. s. colletti populations the capacity to reach very high densities.     

Latitudinal cline of flowering and fruiting phenology in Fagaceae in Asia

The seasonal timing of flowering and fruiting is crucial for the reproductive success of plants and for resource availability to animals. Although plants synchronize their reproductive timing to coincide with appropriate seasons by responding to environmental cues, seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation vary minimally in very wet tropical environments. To explore the latitudinal cline in the reproductive phenology of the Fagaceae in Asia, we analyzed phenology data for a total of 94, 121, and 219 species from Thailand, Malesia, and China, respectively, in the three genera of Fagaceae, Quercus, Castanopsis, and Lithocarpus. We found that Quercus and Castanopsis showed flowering peaks in April in China. In Thailand, the peak shifted to an earlier month, and the peak disappeared in Malesia. The flowering period lengthened with decreasing latitude in the animal-pollinated genera Castanopsis and Lithocarpus. However, this was not the case for the wind-pollinated genus Quercus. The fruiting period lengthened with decreasing latitude in all three genera. We examined the relationship between reproductive phenology and climatic factors. The combination of monthly temperature and precipitation best explained the monthly change in the proportion of flowering and fruiting species in China in all three genera. However, climatic factors had almost no impact on the predictive ability of the model in Malesia. Our results on phenological shifts in the family Fagaceae, from the temperate climates and seasonal tropics to the humid tropics, provide valuable information for predicting phenological changes in future climate change.