Origin and expansion of haplogroup H, the dominant human mitochondrial DNA lineage in West Eurasia: the Near Eastern and Caucasian perspective

More than a third of the European pool of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is fragmented into a number of subclades of haplogroup (hg) H, the most frequent hg throughout western Eurasia. Although there has been considerable recent progress in studying mitochondrial genome variation in Europe at the complete sequence resolution, little data of comparable resolution is so far available for regions like the Caucasus and the Near and Middle East-areas where most of European genetic lineages, including hg H, have likely emerged. This gap in our knowledge causes a serious hindrance for progress in understanding the demographic prehistory of Europe and western Eurasia in general. Here we describe the phylogeography of hg H in the populations of the Near East and the Caucasus. We have analyzed 545 samples of hg H at high resolution, including 15 novel complete mtDNA sequences. As in Europe, most of the present-day Near Eastern-Caucasus area variants of hg H started to expand after the last glacial maximum (LGM) and presumably before the Holocene. Yet importantly, several hg H subclades in Near East and Southern Caucasus region coalesce to the pre-LGM period. Furthermore, irrespective of their common origin, significant differences between the distribution of hg H sub-hgs in Europe and in the Near East and South Caucasus imply limited post-LGM maternal gene flow between these regions. In a contrast, the North Caucasus mitochondrial gene pool has received an influx of hg H variants, arriving from the Ponto-Caspian/East European area.     

Mitochondrial DNA reveals a strong phylogeographic structure in the badger across Eurasia

The badger, Meles meles, is a widely distributed mustelid in Eurasia and shows large geographic variability in morphological characters whose evolutionary significance is unclear and needs to be contrasted with molecular data. We sequenced 512 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 115 Eurasian badgers from 21 countries in order to test for the existence of structuring in their phylogeography, to describe the genetic relationships among their populations across its widespread geographic range, and to infer demographic and biogeographic processes. We found that the Eurasian badger is divided into four groups regarding their mitochondrial DNA: Europe, Southwest Asia, North and East Asia, and Japan. This result suggests that the separation of badgers into phylogeographic groups was influenced by cold Pleistocene glacial stages and permafrost boundaries in Eurasia, and by geographic barriers, such as mountains and deserts. Genetic variation within phylogeographic groups based on distances assuming the Tamura-Nei model with rate heterogeneity and invariable sites (d(T-N) range: 3.3-4.2) was much lower than among them (d(T-N) range: 10.7-38.0), and 80% of the variation could be attributed to differences among regions. Spatial analysis of molecular variance (samova), median-joining network, and Mantel test did not detect genetic structuring within any of the phylogeographic groups with the exception of Europe, where 50% of variation was explained by differences among groups of populations. Our data suggest that the European, Southwest Asian, and North and East Asian badgers evolved separately since the end of Pliocene, at the beginnings of glacial ages, whereas Japanese badgers separated from continental Asian badgers during the middle Pleistocene. Endangered badgers from Crete Island, classified as Meles meles arcalus subspecies, were closely related to badgers from Southwest Asia. We also detected sudden demographic growth in European and Southwest Asian badgers that occurred during the Middle Pleistocene.     

Phylogeography of field voles (Microtus agrestis) in Eurasia inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences

In a distribution-wide phylogeographic survey of the field vole (Microtus agrestis), 75 specimens from 56 localities across Eurasia were examined for DNA sequence variation along the whole 1140 base pair (bp) mitochondrial (mt) cytochrome b gene. The species is subdivided into three main mtDNA phylogeographic groups - western, eastern and southern - with largely allopatric distributions. The western phylogeographical group is found in west and central Europe and spread most probably from a glacial refugium in the Carpathians. The eastern group covers a large range from Lithuania to central Asia, and probably originated from a southeast European source (e.g. the southern Urals or the Caucasus). The southern group occupies an area from Portugal to Hungary, with division into two distinct mtDNA sublineages that presumably derive from separate glacial refugia in the Iberian Peninsula. Molecular clock estimates suggest that the western and eastern field vole populations separated during the last glaciation, whereas the southern population dates back 0.5-0.9 Myr. High levels of mtDNA variation indicate relatively large population sizes and subdivisions within phylogeographic groups during the last glaciation. We report a possible new suture zone in east Europe.     

From East to West: patterns of genetic diversity of populations living in four Eurasian regions

We have analyzed the distribution and patterns of the genetic diversity of eight Alu loci (ACE, ApoA1, PV92, TPA25, NBC27, NBC102, NBC148, and NBC182) in 1,049 individuals representing 16 populations of the Volga-Ural region (Bashkirs, Tatars, Komis, Maris, Mordvins, and Udmurts), Central Asia (Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Uighurs), the North Caucasus (Karachays, Kumyks, Kuban Nogays, and Karanogays), and Central South Siberia (Yakuts, Kalmyks and Evenks). Geographic divide between Europe and Asia, e.g. the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, can also be considered as a genetic boundary. The data indicates that the populations of the two boundary regions between Europe and Asia, the Volga-Ural region of Russia, and populations of the North Caucasus are more similar to European than to Asian populations. Finally, Siberian and Central Asian populations are genetically closely related to each other.     

Tracing the genetic origin of Europe's first farmers reveals insights into their social organization

Farming was established in Central Europe by the Linearbandkeramik culture (LBK), a well-investigated archaeological horizon, which emerged in the Carpathian Basin, in today''s Hungary. However, the genetic background of the LBK genesis is yet unclear. Here we present 9 Y chromosomal and 84 mitochondrial DNA profiles from Mesolithic, Neolithic Starčevo and LBK sites (seventh/sixth millennia BC) from the Carpathian Basin and southeastern Europe. We detect genetic continuity of both maternal and paternal elements during the initial spread of agriculture, and confirm the substantial genetic impact of early southeastern European and Carpathian Basin farming cultures on Central European populations of the sixth–fourth millennia BC. Comprehensive Y chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA population genetic analyses demonstrate a clear affinity of the early farmers to the modern Near East and Caucasus, tracing the expansion from that region through southeastern Europe and the Carpathian Basin into Central Europe. However, our results also reveal contrasting patterns for male and female genetic diversity in the European Neolithic, suggesting a system of patrilineal descent and patrilocal residential rules among the early farmers.     

Phylogeography of the white-tailed eagle, a generalist with large dispersal capacity

Aim Late Pleistocene glacial changes had a major impact on many boreal and temperate taxa, and this impact can still be detected in the present‐day phylogeographic structure of these taxa. However, only minor effects are expected in species with generalist habitat requirements and high dispersal capability. One such species is the white‐tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, and we therefore tested for the expected weak population structure at a continental level in this species. This also allowed us to describe phylogeographic patterns, and to deduce Ice Age refugia and patterns of postglacial recolonization of Eurasia. Location Breeding populations from the easternmost Nearctic (Greenland) and across the Palaearctic (Iceland, continental Europe, central and eastern Asia, and Japan). Methods Sequencing of a 500 base‐pair fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 237 samples from throughout the distribution range. Results Our analysis revealed pronounced phylogeographic structure. Overall, low genetic variability was observed across the entire range. Haplotypes clustered in two distinct haplogroups with a predominantly eastern or western distribution, and extensive overlap in Europe. These two major lineages diverged during the late Pleistocene. The eastern haplogroup showed a pattern of rapid population expansion and colonization of Eurasia around the end of the Pleistocene. The western haplogroup had lower diversity and was absent from the populations in eastern Asia. These results suggest survival during the last glaciation in two refugia, probably located in central and western Eurasia, followed by postglacial population expansion and admixture. Relatively high genetic diversity was observed in northern regions that were ice‐covered during the last glacial maximum. This, and phylogenetic relationships between haplotypes encountered in the north, indicates substantial population expansion at high latitudes. Areas of glacial meltwater runoff and proglacial lakes could have provided suitable habitats for such population growth. Main conclusions This study shows that glacial climate fluctuations had a substantial impact on white‐tailed eagles, both in terms of distribution and demography. These results suggest that even species with large dispersal capabilities and relatively broad habitat requirements were strongly affected by the Pleistocene climatic shifts.     

The mitochondrial and nuclear genetic structure of Myotis capaccinii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in the Eurasian transition, and its taxonomic implications

Allopatric isolation in glacial refugia has caused differentiation and speciation in many taxa globally. In this study, we investigated the nuclear and mitochondrial genetic differentiation of the long fingered bat, Myotis capaccinii during the ice ages in south-eastern Europe and Anatolia. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analyses indicated a suture zone similar to those recorded in other animal species, including bats, suggesting the association of more than one refugium with the region. Contrary to most of the other species where a suture zone was seen in Anatolia, for M. capaccinii the geographical location of the genetic break was in south-eastern Europe. This mitochondrial differentiation was not reflected in the nuclear microsatellites, however, suggesting that the lack of contact during the ice ages did not result in reproductive isolation. Hence taxonomically, the two mitochondrial clades cannot be treated as separate species.     

Geographic variation in size and sexual dimorphism of North American weasels

Geographic variation in size (skull length) and sexual dimorphism in Mustela erminea, Mustela frenata and Mustela nivalis in North America is described and analysed in relation to latitude, longitude, climatic variables, and sympatry or allopatry of these species. Only erminea increases in size with latitude; it does so regardless of the presence or absence of frenata or nivalis. Latitude is a better predictor of size in erminea than available measures of climate, seasonality or prey size. There is no evidence for character displacement between any pair of species. The sexes covary in size in frenata and erminea , and probably in nivalis , although geographic variation in sexual dimorphism occurs in frenata and erminea. The principal cause of sexual dimorphism appears to be sexual selection for large size in males rather than the high energetic requirements resulting from an elongate body shape. However, prey size may constrain female size (and possibly also male size). Regional differences in the abundance of prey during the growth of young weasels may affect adult size much more in males than in females and contribute to geographic variation in sexual dimorphism.     

Communally breeding Bechstein's bats have a stable social system that is independent from the postglacial history and location of the populations

Investigating macro-geographical genetic structures of animal populations is crucial to reconstruct population histories and to identify significant units for conservation. This approach may also provide information about the intraspecific flexibility of social systems. We investigated the history and current structure of a large number of populations in the communally breeding Bechstein's bat ( Myotis bechsteinii ). Our aim was to understand which factors shape the species' social system over a large ecological and geographical range. Using sequence data from one coding and one noncoding mitochondrial DNA region, we identified the Balkan Peninsula as the main and probably only glacial refugium of the species in Europe. Sequence data also suggest the presence of a cryptic taxon in the Caucasus and Anatolia. In a second step, we used seven autosomal and two mitochondrial microsatellite loci to compare population structures inside and outside of the Balkan glacial refugium. Central European and Balkan populations both were more strongly differentiated for mitochondrial DNA than for nuclear DNA, had higher genetic diversities and lower levels of relatedness at swarming (mating) sites than in maternity (breeding) colonies, and showed more differentiation between colonies than between swarming sites. All these suggest that populations are shaped by strong female philopatry, male dispersal, and outbreeding throughout their European range. We conclude that Bechstein's bats have a stable social system that is independent from the postglacial history and location of the populations. Our findings have implications for the understanding of the benefits of sociality in female Bechstein's bats and for the conservation of this endangered species.     

Phylogeography and species limits in the green woodpecker complex (Aves: Picidae): multiple Pleistocene refugia and range expansion across Europe and the Near East

The green woodpecker complex consists of the green woodpecker (Picus viridis), distributed from Western Europe to the Caucasus and Iran, and the related LeVaillant's woodpecker (P. vaillantii), distributed in north‐western Africa from central Morocco to Tunisia. Much of the habitat of green woodpeckers in Central and Northern Europe was covered by ice, tundra, steppe or other unsuitable habitat during the Pleistocene; consequently, they must have come to occupy most of their current range during the past 20 000 years. We used complete mitochondrial ND2 sequences from populations throughout the range to investigate the genetic structure and evolutionary history of this complex. Three well‐differentiated clades, corresponding to three biogeographical regions, were recovered; 89% of the total genetic variance was distributed among these three regions. The populations in North Africa were sister to those of Europe and, within Europe, Iberia was sister to the rest of Europe and the Near East. This suggests that the post‐glacial colonization of most of Europe occurred from a refuge east of Iberia, probably in Italy or the Balkans; there was no substantial divergence among these regions. In addition, a population sample from Iran was genetically distinct from those of Western Europe, indicating a history of genetic isolation and an additional Pleistocene refuge east of the well‐known Balkan refugia and south of the Caucasus. Within Europe, northern populations were less genetically variable than southern ones, consistent with recent colonization. There was significant isolation‐by‐distance across Europe, indicating restricted gene flow; this was particularly apparent between western populations and those of the Caucasus and Iran. We recognize four species in the complex. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 104 , 710–723.     

A European Concern? Genetic Structure and Expansion of Golden Jackals (Canis aureus) in Europe and the Caucasus

In the first continent-wide study of the golden jackal (Canis aureus), we characterised its population genetic structure and attempted to identify the origin of European populations. This provided a unique insight into genetic characteristics of a native carnivore population with rapid large-scale expansion. We analysed 15 microsatellite markers and a 406 base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial control region. Bayesian-based and principal components methods were applied to evaluate whether the geographical grouping of samples corresponded with genetic groups. Our analysis revealed low levels of genetic diversity, reflecting the unique history of the golden jackal among Europe’s native carnivores. The results suggest ongoing gene flow between south-eastern Europe and the Caucasus, with both contributing to the Baltic population, which appeared only recently. The population from the Peloponnese Peninsula in southern Greece forms a common genetic cluster with samples from south-eastern Europe (ΔK approach in STRUCTURE, Principal Components Analysis [PCA]), although the results based on BAPS and the estimated likelihood in STRUCTURE indicate that Peloponnesian jackals may represent a distinct population. Moreover, analyses of population structure also suggest either genetic distinctiveness of the island population from Samos near the coast of Asia Minor (BAPS, most STRUCTURE, PCA), or possibly its connection with the Caucasus population (one analysis in STRUCTURE). We speculate from our results that ancient Mediterranean jackal populations have persisted to the present day, and have merged with jackals colonising from Asia. These data also suggest that new populations of the golden jackal may be founded by long-distance dispersal, and thus should not be treated as an invasive alien species, i.e. an organism that is “non-native to an ecosystem, and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health”. These insights into the genetic structure and ancestry of Baltic jackals have important implications for management and conservation of jackals in Europe. The golden jackal is listed as an Annex V species in the EU Habitats Directive and as such, considering also the results presented here, should be legally protected in all EU member states.     

Intrageneric diversity of the cytochrome B gene and phylogeny of eurasian species of the genus mustela (mustelidae, carnivora)

To illuminate molecular phylogenetic relationships among Eurasian species of the genus Mustela (Mustelidae, Carnivora), we determined nucleotide sequences of the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene region (1,140 base pairs). Molecular phylogenetic trees, constructed using the neighbor-joining and the maximum likelihood methods, showed the common topology of species relationships to each other. The American mink M. vison first branched off and was positioned very remotely from the other species of Mustela. Excluding M. vison, the ermine M. erminea first split from the rest of the species. Two small body-sized weasels, the least weasel M. nivalis and the mountain weasel M. altaica, comprised one cluster (named "the small weasel group"). The other species formed another cluster, where the remarkably close relationships among the domestic ferret M. furo, the European polecat M. putorius, and the steppe polecat M. eversmanni were noticed with 87-94% bootstrap values (named "the ferret group"), supporting the history that the ferret was domesticated from M. putorius and/or M. eversmanni. The European mink M. lutreola was the closest to the ferret group. The genetic distance between the Siberian weasel M. sibirica and the Japanese weasel M. itatsi corresponded to differences of interspecific level, while the two species were relatively close to M. lutreola and the ferret group. These results provide invaluable insight for understanding the evolution of Mustela as well as for investigating the hybridization status between native and introduced species for conservation.     

Secondary poisoning of mustelids in a New Zealand Nothofagus forest

Eleven radio-tagged stoats ( Mustela erminea ) and one weasel ( M. nivalis ) died of secondary poisoning following Talon 20 P^TM (20 ppm brodifacoum) poisoning operations which killed mice ( Mus musculus ), ship rats ( Rattus rattus ) and probably brushtail possums ( Trichosurus vulpecula ) in a New Zealand beech ( Nothofagus ) forest. This poisoning method could be an especially useful way of restoring New Zealand native bird populations because it kills several predator species in one operation. Potential unwanted side-effects must be researched before its routine use. This research also demonstrates the potential hazards of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides to conservation of rodent predators in Europe.     

Observations of fleas of small mammals at the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italian Occidental Alps)]

The Siphonaptera of small mammals (nearly 200 rodents, insectivora and mustelids) of the Parco Nazionale del Gran Paradiso (Western Italian Alps) have been collected and studied during the years 1973-75. All the animals have been captured at altitudes ranging from 1570 to 2400 m during different seasons. Twelve genera and sixteen species have been identified, namely: Chaetopsylla (C.) homoea homoea from Mustela erminea; Hystrichopsylla (H.) talpae talpae from Clethrionomys glareolus; Rhadinopsylla (A.) integella integella from Clethrionomys glareolus and Microtus nivalis; Ctenophtalmus (C.) agyrtes verbanus from Pitymys multiplex (collected by Beaucournu); Ctenophthalmus (C.) solutus solutus from Apodemus flavicollis and Apodemus sylvaticus; Ctenophthalmus (Medioctenophthalmus) nivalis nivalis from Clethrionomys glareolus, Microtus nivalis and Pitymys multiplex; Doratopsylla dasycnema cuspis from Sorex araneus and Clethrionomys glareolus; Palaeopsylla soricis rosickyi from Sorex araneus; Leptopsylla segnis from Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus musculus; Peromyscopsylla bidentata bidentata from Clethrionomys glareolus and Microtus nivalis; peromyscopsylla fallax from clethrionomgs glareous; Amphipsylla sibirica ssp. from clethrionomys glareolus and microtus nivalis; Malaraeus (Amalaraeus), penicilliger kratachvili from Clethrionomys glareolus, Microtus nivalis and Mustela erminea; Myoxopsylla laverani from Eliomys quercinus; Callopsylla saxatilis from Apodemus flavicollis, Microtus nivalis and Mustela erminea. Species of fleas not yet described in Italy are: Chaetopsylla (C.) homoea homoea; Rhadinopsylla (Actenophthalmus) mesa; Ctenophthalmus (Medioctemophthalmus) nivalis nivalis; Callopsylla saxatilis. The genus Callopsylla is identified for the first time in Italy. New identification of hosts for the species of fleas already described in Italy are: for Rhadinopsylla (Actenophthalmus) integella integella: Clethrionomys glareolus; for Ctenophthalmus (C.) solutus solutus: Apodemus flavicollis and Apodemus sylvaticus. All the 15 male specimens of M. laverani from E. quercinus captured in the Parco Nazionale del Gran Paradiso have characters more similar to M. l. traubi than to M. l. laverani: only one long and a much shorter spine in the superior half of the movable process, a distinct tooth in the anterior margin of the movable half of the movable process, a distinct tooth in the anterior margin of the movable process, crochets of phallosome shorter and more gradually tapered, apex of fixed process very acuminated. To the contrary the shape of the movable process is similar to that of M. l. laverani. A point of particular interest is to be found also in 2 specimens of Amphypsilla of the sibirica group, respectively collected from Mustela erminea and Microtus nivalis. They have a very atypical distribution of the spine in an abnormally shaped movable process: the reasons of the abnormality are due to castration, probably of parasitic origin (absence of phallosome, tendons, etc.).     

Phylogeographic history of the yellow-necked fieldmouse (Apodemus flavicollis) in Europe and in the Near and Middle East

The exact location of glacial refugia and the patterns of postglacial range expansion of European mammals are not yet completely elucidated. Therefore, further detailed studies covering a large part of the Western Palearctic region are still needed. In this order, we sequenced 972 bp of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b (mtDNA cyt b) from 124 yellow-necked fieldmice (Apodemus flavicollis) collected from 53 European localities. The aims of the study were to answer the following questions: Did the Mediterranean peninsulas act as the main refuge for yellow-necked fieldmouse or did the species also survive in more easterly refugia (the Caucasus or the southern Ural) and in Central Europe? What is the role of Turkey and Near East regions as Quaternary glacial refuges for this species and as a source for postglacial recolonisers of the Western Palearctic region? The results provide a clear picture of the impact of the quaternary glaciations on the genetic and geographic structure of the fieldmouse. This species survived the ice ages in two main refuges, the first one in the Italo-Balkan region; the second one in Turkey and the Near East regions. It is from the Balkan refuge that it recolonised all European regions at the end of the last glaciation. The Turkish and Near East populations are distinct from the European ones and they did not recolonise the Palearctic region probably because: (i) they were blocked by the Black Sea and the Caucasus, (ii) the long term presence of fieldmice populations in the Balkans prevented their expansion. These are genetically differentiated from the European and Russian ones and could be described as a particular subspecies. This result emphasises the importance of Turkey and the Near and Middle East regions as a refuge for Palearctic mammals.     

Glacial vicariance in Eurasia: mitochondrial DNA evidence from Scots pine for a complex heritage involving genetically distinct refugia at mid-northern latitudes and in Asia Minor

Background  

At the last glacial maximum, Fennoscandia was covered by an ice sheet while the tundra occupied most of the rest of northern Eurasia. More or less disjunct refugial populations of plants were dispersed in southern Europe, often trapped between mountain ranges and seas. Genetic and paleobotanical evidences indicate that these populations have contributed much to Holocene recolonization of more northern latitudes. Less supportive evidence has been found for the existence of glacial populations located closer to the ice margin. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a nordic conifer with a wide natural range covering much of Eurasia. Fractures in its extant genetic structure might be indicative of glacial vicariance and how different refugia contributed to the current distribution at the continental level. The population structure of Scots pine was investigated on much of its Eurasian natural range using maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation and language replacements in the Caucasus

Sequences of the first hypervariable segment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region were obtained from 353 individuals representing nine groups and four major linguistic families (Indo-European, Altaic and North and South Caucasian) of the Caucasus region. The diversity within and between Caucasus populations exceeded the diversity within Europe, but was less than that in the Near East. Caucasus populations occupy an intermediate position between European and Near Eastern populations in tree and principal coordinate analyses, suggesting that they are either ancestral to European populations or derived via admixture from European and Near Eastern populations. The genetic relationships among Caucasus populations reflect geographical rather than linguistic relationships. In particular, the Indo-European-speaking Armenians and Altaic-speaking Azerbaijanians are most closely related to their nearest geographical neighbours in the Caucasus, not their linguistic neighbours (i.e. other Indo-European or Altaic populations). The mtDNA evidence thus suggests that the Armenian and Azerbaijanian languages represent instances of language replacement that had little impact on the mtDNA gene pool.     

Multiple differentiation centres of a non-Mediterranean butterfly species in south-eastern Europe

Aim  The analysis of the phylogeographical structures of many European species reveals the importance of Mediterranean glacial refugia for many thermophilic species, but also underlines the relevance of extra-Mediterranean glacial differentiation centres for a number of temperate species. In this context, phylogeographical analyses of species from south-eastern Europe are highly important for a comprehensive understanding of Europe as a whole.
Location  Romania and Bulgaria.
Methods  We analysed 19 allozyme loci for 615 individuals of the temperate butterfly species Erebia medusa from 28 populations.
Results  These populations had an intermediate genetic diversity, but the Bulgarian populations were significantly more diverse than the ones north of the Danube in Romania. The differentiation among populations was strong, and 52.1% of the genetic variance among populations was distributed between these two countries. The genetic differentiation was considerably stronger in Romania than in Bulgaria, but several sublineages were distinguished within each of these countries.
Main conclusions  The observed genetic structure is so strong that it is most probably the result of glacial differentiation processes in south-eastern Europe and not a post-glacial structure. The strong differentiation into the two groups north and south of the Danube suggests a separating effect by this river valley. The strong differentiation accompanied with genetic impoverishment in Romania suggests the existence of several differentiation centres: at least two small ones on the southern slopes of the southern Carpathians and one in the eastern Carpathian Basin. The considerably weaker differentiation among the Bulgarian samples and their significantly higher genetic diversity imply that gene flow occurred among different regions of Bulgaria during the last ice age.     

Genetics and population history of Caucasus populations

We describe aspects of genetic diversity in several ethnic populations of the Caucasus Mountains of Daghestan using mitochondrial DNA sequences and a sample of 100 polymorphic Alu insertion loci. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences are like those of Europe. Principal coordinates and nearest neighbor statistics show that there is little detectable structure in the distances among populations computed from mtDNA. The Alu frequencies of the Caucasus populations suggest that they have undergone more genetic drift than most other groups since the dispersal of modern humans. Genetic differences among these populations are not large; instead, they are of the same order as distances among populations of Europe. We compare two methods of inference about the demography of ancient colonizing populations from Africa, one based on conventional FST statistics and one based on mean Alu insertion frequencies. The two approaches agree reasonably well if we assume that there was demographic growth in Africa before the diaspora of ancestors of contemporary regional human groups outside Africa.     

Large-Scale Genetic Structuring of a Widely Distributed Carnivore - The Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx)

Over the last decades the phylogeography and genetic structure of a multitude of species inhabiting Europe and North America have been described. The flora and fauna of the vast landmasses of north-eastern Eurasia are still largely unexplored in this respect. The Eurasian lynx is a large felid that is relatively abundant over much of the Russian sub-continent and the adjoining countries. Analyzing 148 museum specimens collected throughout its range over the last 150 years we have described the large-scale genetic structuring in this highly mobile species. We have investigated the spatial genetic patterns using mitochondrial DNA sequences (D-loop and cytochrome b) and 11 microsatellite loci, and describe three phylogenetic clades and a clear structuring along an east-west gradient. The most likely scenario is that the contemporary Eurasian lynx populations originated in central Asia and that parts of Europe were inhabited by lynx during the Pleistocene. After the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) range expansions lead to colonization of north-western Siberia and Scandinavia from the Caucasus and north-eastern Siberia from a refugium further east. No evidence of a Berinigan refugium could be detected in our data. We observed restricted gene flow and suggest that future studies of the Eurasian lynx explore to what extent the contemporary population structure may be explained by ecological variables.