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1.
Muscular dystrophies comprise a heterogeneous group of neuromuscular disorders, characterized by progressive muscle wasting, for which no satisfactory treatment exists. Multiple stem cell populations, both of adult or embryonic origin, display myogenic potential and have been assayed for their ability to correct the dystrophic phenotype. To date, many of these described methods have failed, underlying the need to identify the mechanisms controlling myogenic potential, homing of donor populations to the musculature, and avoidance of the immune response. Recent results focus on the fresh isolation of satellite cells and the use of multiple growth factors to promote mesangioblast migration, both of which promote muscle regeneration. Throughout this chapter, various stem cell based therapies will be introduced and evaluated based on their potential to treat muscular dystrophy in an effective and efficient manner. 相似文献
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Yue Xu Wan-Xia Zhang Li-Na Wang Yue-Qing Ming Yu-Lin Li Guo-Xin Ni 《World journal of stem cells》2021,13(7):753-775
Tendon-bone insertion injuries such as rotator cuff and anterior cruciate ligament injuries are currently highly common and severe. The key method of treating this kind of injury is the reconstruction operation. The success of this reconstructive process depends on the ability of the graft to incorporate into the bone. Recently, there has been substantial discussion about how to enhance the integration of tendon and bone through biological methods. Stem cells like bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), tendon stem/progenitor cells, synovium-derived MSCs, adipose-derived stem cells, or periosteum-derived periosteal stem cells can self-regenerate and potentially differentiate into different cell types, which have been widely used in tissue repair and regeneration. Thus, we concentrate in this review on the current circumstances of tendon-bone healing using stem cell therapy. 相似文献
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In this perspective, the potential application of stem cells for the treatment of COVID-19 related pneumonia and their potential mechanism of action have been overviewed. 相似文献
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Voltarelli JC Couri CE Rodrigues MC Moraes DA Stracieri AB Pieroni F Navarro G Leal AM Simões BP 《Indian journal of experimental biology》2011,49(6):395-400
The present review discusses the use of autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM 1). It has been observed that high dose immunosuppression followed by HSCT shows better results among other immunotherapeutic treatments for the disease as the patients with adequate beta cell reserve achieve insulin independence. However, this response is not maintained and reoccurrence of the disease is major a major challenge to use HSCT in future to prevent or control relapse of DM 1. 相似文献
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Stem cells are the core of tissue repair and regeneration,and a promising cell source for novel therapies.In recent years,research into stem cell therapies has been particularly exciting in China.The remarkable advancements in basic stem cell research and clinically effective trials have led to fresh insights into regenerative medicine,such as treatments for sweat gland injury after burns,diabetes,and liver injury.High hopes have inspired numerous experimental and clinical trials.At the same time,government investment and policy support of research continues to increase markedly.However,numerous challenges must be overcome before novel stem cell therapies can achieve meaningful clinical outcomes. 相似文献
7.
Parisha Bhatia Koji Tsumagari Zakaria Y Abd Elmageed Paul Friedlander Joseph F Buell Emad Kandil 《World journal of stem cells》2014,6(5):614-619
Currently, thyroid cancer is one of the most common endocrine cancer in the United States. A recent involvement of sub-population of stem cells, cancer stem cells, has been proposed in different histological types of thyroid cancer. Because of their ability of self-renewal and differentiation into various specialized cells in the body, these putative cells drive tumor genesis, metastatic activity and are responsible to provide chemo- and radioresistant nature to the cancer cells in the thyroid gland. Our Review was conducted from previously published literature to provide latest apprises to investigate the role of embryonic, somatic and cancer stem cells, and discusses the hypothesis of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Different methods for their identification and isolation through stemness markers using various in vivo and in vitro methods such as flow cytometry, thyrosphere formation assay, aldehyde dehydrogenase activity and ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 efflux-pump mediated Hoechst 33342 dye exclusion have been discussed. The review also outlines various setbacks that still remain to target these tumor initiating cells. Future perspectives of therapeutic strategies and their potential to treat advanced stages of thyroid cancer are also disclosed in this review. 相似文献
8.
Dunbar CE 《Cytotherapy》2004,6(6):586-588
Genetic marking strategies in the non-human primate model have elucidated a number of principles relevant to implementation of clinical stem cell therapies, including the lineage potential, number and lifespan of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, and differences in the functional properties of marrow cells mobilized into the peripheral blood utilizing different regimens. 相似文献
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The eye is a relatively small but very complex organ. It is responsible for vision. Most of its cells are terminally differentiated, and several pathologies affecting those cells lead to vision loss and eventual blindness. Several years ago, a group of cells, located in the limbus, was identified as having the capacity of self-renewal and later on found to feed the renewal of the corneal epithelial layer. Since then, this niche of stem cells has been studied in order to provide clues that can be valuable for the regeneration of ocular structures. The worldwide shortage of donors, increased risk of transmissible diseases and immune rejection and the increased life expectancy, all contributed for the development of strategies to regenerate or repair ocular tissues. In this review we focus on two approaches for ocular regeneration: one based on stem cells and the other one based on tissue engineering strategies, and present examples where these two strategies overlap. We review the sources of cells and tissue engineering strategies for the regeneration of the cornea and of the retina, summarizing the most relevant and recent findings. 相似文献
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Tais Hanae Kasai-Brunswick Adriana Bastos Carvalho Antonio Carlos Campos de Carvalho 《World journal of stem cells》2021,13(9):1231-1247
Cardiovascular diseases represent the world’s leading cause of death. In this heterogeneous group of diseases, ischemic cardiomyopathies are the most devastating and prevalent, estimated to cause 17.9 million deaths per year. Despite all biomedical efforts, there are no effective treatments that can replace the myocytes lost during an ischemic event or progression of the disease to heart failure. In this context, cell therapy is an emerging therapeutic alternative to treat cardiovascular diseases by cell administration, aimed at cardiac regeneration and repair. In this review, we will cover more than 30 years of cell therapy in cardio logy, presenting the main milestones and drawbacks in the field and signaling future challenges and perspectives. The outcomes of cardiac cell therapies are discussed in three distinct aspects: The search for remuscularization by replacement of lost cells by exogenous adult cells, the endogenous stem cell era, which pursued the isolation of a progenitor with the ability to induce heart repair, and the utilization of pluripotent stem cells as a rich and reliable source of cardiomyocytes. Acellular therapies using cell derivatives, such as microvesicles and exosomes, are presented as a promising cell-free therapeutic alternative. 相似文献
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Chen H Stanley E Jin S Zirkin BR 《Birth defects research. Part C, Embryo today : reviews》2010,90(4):272-283
Leydig cells are the testosterone-producing cells of the testis. The adult Leydig cell (ALC) population ultimately develops from undifferentiated mesenchymal-like stem cells present in the interstitial compartment of the neonatal testis. Distinct stages of ALC development have been identified and characterized. These include stem Leydig cells (SLCs), progenitor Leydig cells, immature Leydig cells, and ALCs. This review describes our current understanding of the SLCs in the fetal, prenatal, peripubertal, adult, and aged rat testis, as well as recent studies of the differentiation of steroidogenic cells from the stem cells of other organs. 相似文献
14.
Peter G Brindley 《BMC anesthesiology》2013,13(1):1-3
A study by Burkle et al. in BMC Anesthesiology examined attitudes around perioperative do-not-resuscitate orders. Questionnaires were given to patients, as well as to anesthesiologists, internists and surgeons. The study has limitations and is open to interpretation. However, the findings are important. There appear to be attitudinal differences between patients and doctors, and between specialties. A small majority of patients are content to have a do-not-resuscitate order postponed during the perioperative period. A large majority expects open communication from doctors before proceeding. However, this article could also encourage a broader debate. This is about how to respect patient autonomy, while ensuring that resuscitation truly serves the patient’s best interests. This commentary outlines how more communication is needed at the bedside and in wider society. 相似文献
15.
Weissman I 《Cell Stem Cell》2012,10(6):663-665
Stem cell therapies have the potential to revolutionize the way we practice medicine. However, in the current climate several barriers and false assumptions stand in the way of achieving that goal. 相似文献
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As a novel neurotherapeutic strategy, stem cell transplantation has received considerable attention. However, little focus of this attention has been devoted to the probabilities of success of stem cell therapies for specific neurological disorders. Given the complexities of the cellular organization of the nervous system and the manner in which it is assembled during development, it seems unlikely that a cellular replacement strategy will succeed for any but the simplest of neurological disorders in the near future. A general strategy for stem cell transplantation to prevent or minimize neurological disorders is much more likely to succeed. The lysosomal storage diseases represent the quintessential neurodegenerative diseases for which preventative stem cell transplantation will both likely succeed and set the stage for therapeutic approaches to other neurodegenerative diseases. 相似文献
17.
Roberto Weigert Natalie Porat-Shliom Panomwat Amornphimoltham 《The Journal of cell biology》2013,201(7):969-979
Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy is one of the main tools used to image subcellular structures in living cells. Yet for decades it has been applied primarily to in vitro model systems. Thanks to the most recent advancements in intravital microscopy, this approach has finally been extended to live rodents. This represents a major breakthrough that will provide unprecedented new opportunities to study mammalian cell biology in vivo and has already provided new insight in the fields of neurobiology, immunology, and cancer biology.The discovery of GFP combined with the ability to engineer its expression in living cells has revolutionized mammalian cell biology (Chalfie et al., 1994). Since its introduction, several light microscopy–based techniques have become invaluable tools to investigate intracellular events (Lippincott-Schwartz, 2011). Among them are: time-lapse confocal microscopy, which has been instrumental in studying the dynamics of cellular and subcellular processes (Hirschberg et al., 1998; Jakobs, 2006; Cardarelli and Gratton, 2010); FRAP, which has enabled determining various biophysical properties of proteins in living cells (Berkovich et al., 2011); and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), which has been used to probe for protein–protein interactions and the local activation of specific signaling pathways (Balla, 2009). The continuous search for improvements in temporal and spatial resolution has led to the development of more sophisticated technologies, such as spinning disk microscopy, which allows the resolution of fast cellular events that occur on the order of milliseconds (Nakano, 2002); total internal reflection microscopy (TIRF), which enables imaging events in close proximity (100 nm) to the plasma membrane (Cocucci et al., 2012); and super-resolution microscopy (SIM, PALM, and STORM), which captures images with resolution higher than the diffraction limit of light (Lippincott-Schwartz, 2011).Most of these techniques have been primarily applied to in vitro model systems, such as cells grown on solid substrates or in 3D matrices, explanted embryos, and organ cultures. These systems, which are relatively easy to maintain and to manipulate either pharmacologically or genetically, have been instrumental in providing fundamental information about cellular events down to the molecular level. However, they often fail to reconstitute the complex architecture and physiology of multicellular tissues in vivo. Indeed, in a live organism, cells exhibit a 3D organization, interact with different cell types, and are constantly exposed to a multitude of signals originated from the vasculature, the central nervous system, and the extracellular environment. For this reason, scientists have been attracted by the possibility of imaging biological processes in live multicellular organisms (i.e., intravital microscopy [IVM]). The first attempt in this direction was in 1839, when Rudolph Wagner described the interaction of leukocytes with the walls of blood vessels in the webbed feet of a live frog by using bright-field transillumination (Wagner, 1839). Since then, this approach has been used for over a century to study vascular biology in thin areas of surgically exposed organs (Irwin and MacDonald, 1953; Zweifach, 1954) or by implanting optical windows in the skin or the ears (Clark and Clark, 1932). In addition, cell migration has also been investigated using transparent tissues, such as the fin of the teleost (Wood and Thorogood, 1984; Thorogood and Wood, 1987). The introduction of epifluorescence microscopy has enabled following in more detail the dynamics of individual cells in circulation (Nuttall, 1987), in tumors (MacDonald et al., 1992), or in the immune system (von Andrian, 1996), and the spatial resolution has been significantly improved by the use of confocal microscopy, which has made it possible to collect serial optical sections from a given specimen (Villringer et al., 1989; O’Rourke and Fraser, 1990; Jester et al., 1991). However, these techniques can resolve structures only within a few micrometers from the surface of optically opaque tissues (Masedunskas et al., 2012a). It was only in the early nineteen nineties, with the development of multiphoton microscopy, that deep tissue imaging has become possible (Denk et al., 1990; Zipfel et al., 2003b), significantly contributing to several fields, including neurobiology, immunology, and cancer biology (Fig. 1; Svoboda and Yasuda, 2006; Amornphimoltham et al., 2011; Beerling et al., 2011). In the last few years, the development of strategies to minimize the motion artifacts caused by the heartbeat and respiration has made it possible to successfully image subcellular structures with spatial and temporal resolutions comparable to those achieved in in vitro model systems, thus providing the opportunity to study cell biology in live mammalian tissues (Fig. 1; Weigert et al., 2010; Pittet and Weissleder, 2011).Open in a separate windowFigure 1.Spatial resolution and current applications of intravital microscopy. IVM provides the opportunity to image several biological processes in live animals at different levels of resolution. Low-magnification objectives (5–10×) enable visualizing tissues and their components under physiological conditions and measuring their response under pathological conditions. Particularly, the dynamics of the vasculature have been one of topic most extensively studied by IVM. Objectives with higher magnification (20–30×) have enabled imaging the behavior of individual cell over long periods of time. This has led to major breakthroughs in fields such as neurobiology, immunology, cancer biology, and stem cell research. Finally, the recent developments of strategies to minimize the motion artifacts caused by the heartbeat and respiration combined with high power lenses (60–100×) have opened the door to image subcellular structures and to study cell biology in live animals.The aim of this review is to highlight the power of IVM in addressing cell biological questions that cannot be otherwise answered in vitro, due to the intrinsic limitations of reductionist models, or by other more classical approaches. Furthermore, we discuss limitations and areas for improvement of this imaging technique, hoping to provide cell biologists with the basis to assess whether IVM is the appropriate choice to address their scientific questions.
Open in a separate windowOpen in a separate windowFigure 3.Imaging tissues and individual cells in live animals. (A) The vasculature of an immunocompromised mouse was highlighted by the systemic injection of 2 MD dextran (red) before (left) and after (right) the implant of breast cancer cells in the back (green). Note the change in shape of the blood vessels and their increased permeability (arrow). Images were acquired by two-photon microscopy (excitation wavelength: 930 nm). (B) The microvasculature in the liver of a mouse expressing the membrane marker mTomato (red) was highlighted by the injection of cascade blue dextran (blue) and imaged by confocal microscopy (excitation wavelengths: 405 nm and 561 nm). Note the red blood cells that do not uptake the dye and appear as dark objects in the blood stream (arrow). (C) Metastatic and nonmetastatic human adenocarcinoma cells were injected in the tongue of an immunocompromised mouse and imaged for four consecutive days by using two-photon microscopy (excitation wavelength: 930 nm). The metastatic cells, which express the fluorescent protein mCherry (red), migrate away from the edge of the tumor (arrows), whereas the nonmetastatic cells, which express the fluorescent protein Venus (green), do not. (D) A granulocyte moving inside a blood vessel in the mammary gland of a mouse expressing GFP-tagged myosin IIb (green) and labeled with the mitochondrial vital dye MitoTracker (red) was imaged in time lapse by using confocal microscopy (excitation wavelengths: 488 nm and 561 nm). Figure corresponds to Video 1. Time is expressed as minutes:seconds. Bars: (A) 100 µm; (B) 10 µm; (C) 30 µm; (D) 10 µm.IVM has also been used successfully to study the dynamics and the morphological changes of individual cells within a tissue (Event Organ Probe Reference Neuronal morphology of hippocampal neurons Brain Thy1-GFP mice, dextran Barretto et al., 2011 Neuronal circuitry Brain Brainbow mice Livet et al., 2007 Dendritic spine development in the cortex Brain YFP H-line mice Pan and Gan, 2008 Calcium imaging in the brain Brain GCAMP Zariwala et al., 2012 Natural killer cell and cytotoxic T cell interactions with tumors Xenograft mCFP , mYFP Deguine et al., 2010 Neutrophil recruitment in beating heart Heart Dextran, CX3CR1-GFP mice Li et al., 2012 Immune cells in the central nervous system Brain Dextran, CX3CR1-GFP, LysM-GFP and CD11c-YFP mice Nayak et al., 2012 Dendritic cells migration Skin YFP, VE-caherin RFP mice, dextran Nitschké et al., 2012 CD8+ T cells interaction with dendritic cells during viral infection Lymph nodes EGFP, Dextran, SHG Hickman et al., 2008 B cells and dendritic cells interactions outside lymph nodes Lymph nodes EGFP Qi et al., 2006 Change in gene expression during metastasis Xenograft Pinner et al., 2009 Invasion and metastasis in head and neck cancer Xenograft YFP, RFP-lifeact, dextran Amornphimoltham et al., 2013 Fibrosarcoma cell migration along collagen fibers Dorsal skin chamber SHG, EGFP, DsRed, Dextran Alexander et al., 2008 Long term imaging mammary tumors and photo-switchable probes Mammary window Dendra-2 Kedrin et al., 2008; Gligorijevic et al., 2009 Long term imaging liver metastasis through abdominal window Liver SHG, Dendra2, EGFP Ritsma et al., 2012b Macrophages during intravasation in mammary tumors Xenograft EGFP, SHG, dextrans Wang et al., 2007; Wyckoff et al., 2007 Melanoma collective migration Dorsal skin Chamber SHG, THG, EGFP, Dextran Weigelin et al., 2012 Hematopoietic stem cells and blood vessel Skullcup Dextran Lo Celso et al., 2009 Epithelial stem cells during hair regeneration Skin H2B-GFP mice Rompolas et al., 2012
Imaging techniques currently used to perform intravital microscopy
Confocal and two-photon microscopy are the most widely used techniques to perform IVM. Confocal microscopy, which is based on single photon excitation, is a well-established technique (Fig. 2 A) that has been extensively discussed elsewhere (Wilson, 2002); hence we will only briefly describe some of the main features of two-photon microscopy and other nonlinear optical techniques.Open in a separate windowFigure 2.Fluorescent light microscopy imaging techniques used for intravital microscopy. (A) Confocal microscopy. (top) In confocal microscopy, a fluorophore absorbs a single photon with a wavelength in the UV-visible range of the spectrum (blue arrow). After a vibrational relaxation (orange curved arrow), a photon with a wavelength shifted toward the red is emitted (green arrow). (center) In thick tissue, excitation and emission occur in a relative large volume around the focal plane (F.P.). The off-focus emissions are eliminated through a pinhole, and the signal from the focal plane is detected via a photomultiplier (PMT). Confocal microscopy enables imaging at a maximal depth to 80–100 µm. (bottom) Confocal z stack of the tongue of a mouse expressing the membrane marker m-GFP (green) in the K14-positive basal epithelial layer, and the membrane marker mTomato in the endothelium (red). The xy view shows a maximal projection of 40 z slices acquired every 2.5 µm, whereas the xz view shows a lateral view of the stack. In blue are the nuclei labeled by a systemic injection of Hoechst. Excitation wavelengths: 450 nm, 488 nm, and 562 nm. (B) Two- and three-photon microscopy. (top) In this process a fluorophore absorbs almost simultaneously two or three photons that have half (red arrow) or a third (dark red arrow) of the energy required for its excitation with a single photon. Two- or three-photon excitations typically require near-IR or IR light (from 690 to 1,600 nm). (center) Emission and excitation occur only at the focal plane in a restricted volume (1.5 fl), and for this reason a pinhole is not required. Two- and three-photon microscopy enable imaging routinely at a maximal depth of 300–500 µm. (bottom) Two-photon z stack of an area adjacent to that imaged in A. xy view shows a maximal projection of 70 slices acquired every 5 µm. xz view shows a lateral view of the stack. Excitation wavelength: 840 nm. (C) SHG and THG. (top) In SHG and THG, photons interact with the specimen and combine to form new photons that are emitted with twice or three times their initial energy without any energy loss. (center) These processes have similar features to those described for two- and three-photon microscopy and enable imaging at a maximal depth of 200–400 µm. (bottom) z stack of a rat heart excited by two-photon microscopy (740 nm) to reveal the parenchyma (green), and SHG (930 nm) to reveal collagen fibers (red). xy shows a maximal projection of 20 slices acquired every 5 µm. xz view shows a lateral view of the stack. Bars: (xy views) 40 µm; (xz views) 50 µm.The first two-photon microscope (Denk et al., 1990) was based on the principle of two-photon excitation postulated by Maria Göppert-Mayer in her PhD thesis (Göppert-Mayer, 1931). In this process a fluorophore is excited by the simultaneous absorption of two photons with wavelengths in the near-infrared (IR) or IR spectrum (from 690 to 1,600 nm; Fig. 2 B). Two-photon excitation requires high-intensity light that is provided by lasers generating very short pulses (in the femtosecond range) and is focused on the excitation spot by high numerical aperture lenses (Zipfel et al., 2003b). There are three main advantages in using two-photon excitation for IVM. First, IR light has a deeper tissue penetration than UV or visible light (Theer and Denk, 2006). Indeed, two-photon microscopy can resolve structures up to a depth of 300–500 µm in most of the tissues (Fig. 2 B), and up to 1.5 mm in the brain (Theer et al., 2003; Masedunskas et al., 2012a), whereas confocal microscopy is limited to 80–100 µm (Fig. 2 A). Second, the excitation is restricted to a very small volume (1.5 fl; Fig. 2 B). This implies that in two-photon microscopy there is no need to eliminate off-focus signals, and that under the appropriate conditions photobleaching and phototoxicity are negligible (Zipfel et al., 2003b). However, confocal microscopy induces out-of-focus photodamage, and thus is less suited for long-term imaging. Third, selected endogenous molecules can be excited, thus providing the contrast to visualize specific biological structures without the need for exogenous labeling (Zipfel et al., 2003a). Some of these molecules can also be excited by confocal microscopy using UV light, although with the risk of inducing photodamage.More recently, other nonlinear optical techniques have been used for IVM, and among them are three-photon excitation, and second and third harmonic generation (SHG and THG; Campagnola and Loew, 2003; Zipfel et al., 2003b; Oheim et al., 2006). Three-photon excitation follows the same principle as two-photon (Fig. 2 B), and can reveal endogenous molecules such as serotonin and melatonin (Zipfel et al., 2003a; Ritsma et al., 2013). In SHG and THG, photons interact with the specimen and combine to form new photons that are emitted with two or three times their initial energy (Fig. 2 C). SHG reveals collagen (Fig. 2 C) and myosin fibers (Campagnola and Loew, 2003), whereas THG reveals lipid droplets and myelin fibers (Débarre et al., 2006; Weigelin et al., 2012). Recently, two other techniques have been used for IVM: coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM). CARS that is based on two laser beams combined to match the energy gap between two vibrational levels of the molecule of interest, has been used to image lipids and myelin fibers (Müller and Zumbusch, 2007; Fu et al., 2008; Le et al., 2010). FLIM, which measures the lifetime that a molecule spends in the excited state, provides quantitative information on cellular parameters such as pH, oxygen levels, ion concentration, and the metabolic state of various biomolecules (Levitt et al., 2009; Provenzano et al., 2009; Bakker et al., 2012).We want to emphasize that two-photon microscopy and the other nonlinear techniques are the obligatory choice when the imaging area is located deep inside the tissue, endogenous molecules have to be imaged, or long-term imaging with frequent sampling is required. However, confocal microscopy is more suited to resolve structures in the micrometer range, because of the possibility of modulating the optical slice (Masedunskas et al., 2012a).IVM to investigate biological processes at the tissue and the single cell level
The main strength of IVM is to provide information on the dynamics of biological processes that otherwise cannot be reconstituted in vitro or ex vivo. Indeed, IVM has been instrumental in studying several aspects of tissue physiopathology (Fig. 3, A and B). Although other approaches such as classical immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and indirect immunofluorescence may provide detailed structural and quantitative information on blood vessels, IVM enables measuring events such as variations of blood flow at the level of the capillaries or local changes in blood vessel permeability. These data have been instrumental in understanding the mechanisms of ischemic diseases and tumor progression, and in designing effective anticancer treatments.Table 1.
IVM to study tissue physiopathologyEvent | Organ | Probes | Reference |
Measurements of local blood flow and glial cell function | Brain | Dextran | Helmchen and Kleinfeld, 2008 |
Ischemia and reperfusion | Brain | Sulphorhodamine 101, Dextran | Zhang and Murphy, 2007; Masamoto et al., 2012; |
Glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption | Kidney | Dextran, Albumin | Kang et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2007; Camirand et al., 2011 |
Blood flow patterns | Pancreatic islets | Dextran | Nyman et al., 2008 |
Capillary response and synaptic activation | Olfactory bulb | Dextran | Chaigneau et al., 2003 |
Imaging angiogenesis during wound healing | Skullcap | Dextran | Holstein et al., 2011 |
Pulmonary microvasculature and endothelial activation | Lung | Dextran | Presson et al., 2011 |
Morphology of blood vessels and permeability in tumors | Xenografts | Dextran, RGD quantum dots | Tozer et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2008; Vakoc et al., 2009; Fukumura et al., 2010 |
Hepatic transport into the bile canaliculi | Liver | Carboxyfluorescein diacetate Rhodamine 123 | Babbey et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2012 |
Progression of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease | Brain | Curcumin and metoxy-04 | Spires et al., 2005; Garcia-Alloza et al., 2007 |
Mitochondrial membrane potential | Liver | Tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester Rhodamine 123 | Theruvath et al., 2008; Zhong et al., 2008 |
Oxygen consumption | Liver | Ru(phen3)2+ | Paxian et al., 2004 |
Sarcomere contraction in humans | Skeletal muscle | Endogenous fluorescence | Llewellyn et al., 2008 |