拟南芥叶绿体中DEG蛋白酶功能的研究进展

DEGP家族蛋白酶广泛分布于原核生物和真核生物细胞中。在拟南芥中有16个DEGP类似的蛋白酶,根据蛋白质组学数据,其中有4个定位于叶绿体中,分别命名为DEG1、DEG2、DEG5和DEG8。结合生物化学和分子生物学等研究手段对拟南芥叶绿体中的DEGP蛋白酶进行了分析,现有的研究初步证明了这些蛋白酶参与光系统II（PSII）复合物反应中心D1蛋白的降解,从而在PSII复合物的修复循环和功能维护中起重要作用。该文概述了拟南芥叶绿体中DEG蛋白酶的结构和功能的最新研究进展。     

拟南芥DG1参与叶绿体早期光合蛋白合成功能

拟南芥中已有466个PPR蛋白,已有研究证实许多PPR蛋白参与细胞器基因表达的转录后调节,但大部分PPR蛋白分子作用机制尚不清楚.Delayed greening 1(DG1)是定位于叶绿体中的的PPR蛋白,研究结果证实该蛋白是通过与SIG6因子相互作用降低PEP转录活性从而影响叶绿体早期发育.本研究利用拟南芥Dg1基因功能缺陷型突变体研究了DG1蛋白对光系统蛋白复合体组成及其光转化效率的影响.77K荧光发射光谱分析发现dg1突变体幼叶PSII中电子传递速度明显低于野生型,而成熟叶片与野生型基本一致;蓝绿温和胶分析结果表明:相对于野生型在dg1突变体新生叶中PSII、PS玉及其超聚复合物含量均有不同程度降低;进一步温和胶二向电泳及蛋白免疫印迹分析显示,在dg1突变体新生叶中,由叶绿体编码的光系统蛋白复合物组成亚基含量显著降低,而核编码复合物组成亚基含量与野生型相比没有明显区别.上述实验结果进一步确定了DG1蛋白是通过调控叶绿体编码基因的表达进而调节光系统复合物的生物合成与组装,最终影响拟南芥叶绿体早期发育.因此,我们认为DG1蛋白对于叶绿体发育早期光合蛋白的合成是必需的.     

以蛋白酶作为结构修饰剂的叶绿体膜结构和功能的分析

(1)用胰蛋白酶和胰凝乳蛋白酶消化菠菜叶绿体,酶消化对 DCIP 和 Fecy 光还原的影响基本相似,但对偶联因子消化的特性不同。在低酶浓度下,胰蛋白酶对叶绿体 DCIP 光还原有明显的解联作用,而胰凝乳蛋白酶却无这种作用。(2)从蛋白酶消化叶绿体 DCIP 和 Fecy 光还原活性的变化,以及 PSII 人工电子供体能恢复 CCCP 抑制作用的实验结果,证明胰蛋白酶钝化 PSII 氧化侧和还原侧电子传递的有关部位,还可能使 PSII 作用中心部分受损。(3)解联剂的实验证明,PSII 可能存在着精细的结构。文中提出 PSII 膜外侧与 PSII 氧化侧之间可能存在着类似于“转能器”中“沟”组织的假设。     

拟南芥未知功能基因At3g61870编码蛋白的叶绿体定位研究

利用反向遗传学研究方法对1个预测的拟南芥叶绿体未知功能基因At3g61870编码蛋白进行了亚细胞定位研究.通过克隆At3g61870基因5′端长229 bp的DNA片段,与绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)基因构建重组表达载体pMON530-CP-TP-GFP,经农杆菌介导转化拟南芥.转基因植株的叶肉细胞经激光共聚焦显微镜观察,叶绿素自发荧光与GFP荧光共定位于叶绿体中.结果表明,未知功能基因At3g61870编码的蛋白质为叶绿体蛋白质.     

定位于类囊体膜的PPF1在转基因拟南芥中的表达影响叶绿体的发育

PPF1是一个与植物营养生长相关的基因。它编码的产物可能是一个膜蛋白并与拟南芥叶绿体中的类囊体蛋白ALB3有很高的同源性。免疫电镜分析表明PPF1蛋白同样主要定位于类囊体膜 ,而且在短日照G2豌豆开花两周后仍发育良好的叶绿体中有很高的表达 ,在长日照豌豆同时期非正常叶绿体中丰度非常低。对转基因拟南芥和野生型植株的叶片衰老进程比较发现 ,PPF1在拟南芥中的过量表达可以延缓叶片的衰老 ,而用PPF1反义mRNA抑制拟南芥中的同源基因ALB3则明显加快叶片衰老速度。对转基因拟南芥的超微结构分析显示 ,PPF1在拟南芥中过量表达时 ,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体大并含有更多的基粒和基质类囊体膜 ;相反 ,反义PPF1表达抑制其在拟南芥中的同源物时 ,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体小并含有较少的基粒和发育较差的类囊体膜系统。这些数据表明叶绿体的发育状况与PPF1或拟南芥同源物ALB3的表达水平呈正相关。我们的结果提示PPF1基因可能通过控制叶绿体的发育状况来调节植物的发育。     

2，3－环氧丙酸钾对水稻光合功能的改善

光呼吸抑制剂2,3－环氧丙酸钾对水稻光合功能具有明显的改善作用,不论在整体叶片水平还是在离体叶绿体条件下,均能提高光系统II（PSII）的活性和原初光能转化效率;提高叶绿体的PSII和光系统I（PSI）及全链（PSII＋PSI）的电子传递速率;同时它还可以提高镁离子（Mg^2+)和叶绿体膜蛋白磷酸化对两个光系统之间光能分配的调节能力,结果表明了2,3－环氧丙酸钾在水稻生产上有一定应用前景。     

植物光系统II的组份和辅因子在其组装过程中的作用和调节

光系统II(photosystem II,PSII)是光合作用光反应过程重要的光合膜蛋白复合体。它是由大约25个不同蛋白质复合物及其辅因子组成的色素蛋白复合体。由于PSII结构的复杂性,PSII的组装是多步骤的,并得到辅因子和调控蛋白的协助。重点讨论PSII组份色素、小亚基、外周蛋白和保守因子在其组装过程中的作用和调节机制,并介绍了蓝细菌和植物叶绿体中的一些特殊蛋白质调控因子。     

2，3－环氧丙酸钾对水稻光合功能的改善

光呼吸抑制剂2,3－环氧丙酸钾对水稻光合功能具有明显的改善作用,不论在整体叶片水平还是在离体叶绿体条件下,均能提高光系统II（PSII）的活性和原初光能转化效率;提高叶绿体的PSII和光系统I（PSI）及全链（PSII＋PSI）的电子传递速率;同时它还可以提高镁离子（Mg^2 )和叶绿体膜蛋白磷酸化对两个光系统之间光能分配的调节能力,结果表明了2,3－环氧丙酸钾在水稻生产上有一定应用前景。     

大豆GmcpSecA基因的克隆及表达特异性

Sec途径是将核编码的叶绿体蛋白输入到类囊体腔的蛋白分选途径之一,对叶绿体正确行使其功能有重要作用。前期研究获得了拟南芥AtcpSecA功能缺失的突变体agyl,其叶片呈黄白色,叶绿体发育缺陷,内部缺少类囊体片层结构。我们从大豆中克隆了拟南芥AtepSecA的同源基因GmcpSecA基因的全长cDNA序列和5’端ATG上游1．5kb的启动子序列,通过RT-PCR的方法对GmcpSecA基因表达的器官特异性进行了初步分析;并构建了GmcpSecA：：GUS和35S：：GmcpSecA融合基因,以农杆菌介导的转化方法获得转基因拟南芥。GUS组织化学染色结果表明：在转基因拟南芥的子叶、叶片、花萼等绿色组织中都有较强的GUS表达,而在非绿色组织中没有GUS表达。通过将过表达载体p35S：：GmcpSecA转化agyl,结果表明GmcpSecA能够部分回补拟南芥agyl突变体的表型。推测GmcpSecA基因具有与AtcpSecA基因相似的功能,在叶绿体发育过程中发挥重要作用。     

定位于类囊体膜的PPF1在转基因拟南芥中的表达影响叶绿体的发育

PPF1是一个与植物营养生长相关的基因.它编码的产物可能是一个膜蛋白并与拟南芥叶绿体中的类囊体蛋白ALB3有很高的同源性.免疫电镜分析表明PPF1蛋白同样主要定位于类囊体膜,而且在短日照G2豌豆开花两周后仍发育良好的叶绿体中有很高的表达,在长日照豌豆同时期非正常叶绿体中丰度非常低.对转基因拟南芥和野生型植株的叶片衰老进程比较发现, PPF1在拟南芥中的过量表达可以延缓叶片的衰老,而用PPF1反义mRNA抑制拟南芥中的同源基因ALB3则明显加快叶片衰老速度.对转基因拟南芥的超微结构分析显示,PPF1在拟南芥中过量表达时,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体大并含有更多的基粒和基质类囊体膜;相反,反义PPF1表达抑制其在拟南芥中的同源物时,转基因植株的叶绿体比野生型植株的叶绿体小并含有较少的基粒和发育较差的类囊体膜系统.这些数据表明叶绿体的发育状况与PPF1或拟南芥同源物ALB3的表达水平呈正相关.我们的结果提示PPF1基因可能通过控制叶绿体的发育状况来调节植物的发育.     

Sedimentation equilibrium in reacting systems. VII. The temperature-dependent self-association of beta-lactoglobulin A at pH 2.46

The polyene antibiotic filipin inhibits the activities of both photosystem I and photosystem II in maize mesophyll chloroplasts and pea chloroplasts. Maximum inhibition of photosystem II activity was observed at a filipin concentration of about 0.4 mm in maize mesophyll chloroplasts and 1.0 mm in pea chloroplasts. Inhibition of photosystem II activity was temperature dependent, being much less if the antibiotic and chloroplasts were incubated at 0 °C compared to 25 °C. The inhibition of photosystem I activity of both maize mesophyll and pea chloroplasts caused by filipin, could be overcome by the addition of the soluble electron transfer protein, plastocyanin. It is concluded that the inhibition of photochemical activity caused by filipin is a secondary effect resulting from a change in membrane conformation induced by the antibiotic.     

Effect of metal chelators on thermoluminescence peaks of spinach chloroplasts and photosystem II particles: probing the water oxidation cycle with 8-hydroxyquinoline

Inhibition of photosystem II (PS II) activity by 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) has been investigated in case of spinach chloroplasts and isolated photosystem II particles using the thermoluminescence technique. In presence of 8-HQ, water to methylviologen (MV) photoreduction in isolated chloroplasts is inhibited while the reduction of dichlorophenol indophenol is inhibited in both chloroplasts as well as in photosystem II particles. The activity can be restored fully by addition of diphenylcarbazide (DPC), suggesting that the donor side of water oxidation complex is affected. The changes in the thermoluminescence peaks indicate that the charge recombination processes involving S2 or S3 states of the Kok's cycle are probably affected by 8-HQ treatment.     

The family of Deg proteases in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts of higher plants

The family of Deg proteases is present in nearly all organisms from bacteria to higher plants. This family consists of ATP-independent serine endopeptidases with a catalytic domain of trypsin type and up to three PDZ domains, involved in protein–protein interactions. Sixteen deg genes (originally named deg P1–16) were found in Arabidopsis thaliana , and the chloroplast location was predicted or experimentally proven for seven proteins. The cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 contains three Deg homologues, HtrA (DegP), HhoA (DegQ) and HhoB (DegS), but their number can vary between one and six in other photosynthetic Prokaryota. Interestingly, all of these proteases are evolutionarily more closely related within one species than proteases with the same names present in other organisms. This means that Deg proteases from A. thaliana are not necessarily the closest relatives of cyanobacterial DegP. Therefore, we propose to change the misleading original name 'DegP' to 'Deg' for A. thaliana enzymes. Here, we summarize the expression, location and functions of Deg proteases from cyanobacteria and chloroplasts of higher plants, with special emphasis on their role in the photosystem II (PSII) repair cycle under light stress conditions.     

Two molecular forms of pea ferredoxin in the electron transport chain of chloroplasts

The effects of two molecular forms of water-soluble ferredoxin (Fd I and Fd II) on the kinetics of electron transport in bean chloroplasts (class B) were studied. The light-induced redox transitions of the photosystem I reaction center P700 were measured by the intensity of the EPR signal I produced by P700+. Both forms of ferredoxin, Fd I and Fd II, when added to the chloroplasts in catalytic amounts, stimulate the light-induced electron transfer from P700 to NADP+. Nevertheless, Fd I is a better mediator of the back reactions from NADPH to P700+. This electron transfer pathway is sensitive to the cyclic electron transport inhibitor, antimycin A, and to DCMU inhibitor of electron transport between photosystem II and plastoquinone. It may be concluded that the two molecular forms of ferredoxin, Fd I and Fd II, differ in their ability to catalyze cyclic electron transport in photosystem I. The role of Fd I and Fd II in regulation of electron transport at the acceptor site of photosystem I is discussed.     

Photorespiration is More Effective than the Mehler Reaction in Protecting the Photosynthetic Apparatus against Photoinhibition

I. Isolated intact chloroplasts: Photosystem II, but not photosystem I, of the electron transport chain is rapidly photoinactivated even by very low intensities of red light when no large proton gradient can be formed and the electron transport chain becomes over-reduced in the absence of oxygen and other reducable substrates. Electron acceptors including oxygen provide protection against photoinactivation. Nevertheless, photosystem II is rapidly, and photosystem I more slowly, photoinactivated by high intensities of red light when oxygen is the only electron acceptor available. Increased damage is observed at increased oxygen concentrations although catalase is added to destroy H₂O₂ formed during oxygen reduction in the Mehler reaction. Photoinactivation can be decreased, but not prevented by ascorbate which reduces hydrogen peroxide inside the chloroplasts and increases coupled electron flow. II. Leaves: Simple measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence permit assessment of damage to photosystem II after exposure of leaves to high intensity illumination. In contrast to isolated chloroplasts, chloroplasts suffer more damage in situ at reduced than at elevated oxygen concentrations. The difference in the responses is due to photorespiration which is active in leaves, but not in isolated chloroplasts. After photosynthesis and photorespiration are inhibited by feeding glyceraldehyde to leaves, photoinactivation is markedly increased, although oxygen reduction in the Mehler reaction is not affected by glyceraldehyde. In the presence of reduced CO₂ levels, photorespiratory reactions, but not the Mehler reaction, can prevent the overreduction of the electron transport chain. Over-reduction indicates ineffective control of photosystem II activity. Effective control is needed for protection of the electron transport chain against photoinactivation. It is suggested to be made possible by coupled cyclic electron flow around photosystem I which is facilitated by the redox poising resulting from the interplay between photorespiratory carbohydrate oxidation and the refixation of evolved CO₂.     

Chelator-sensitive in chloroplast electron transport

The effect of various chelators (orthophenanthroline, bathophen-anthroline, bathophenanthroline sulfonate and bathocuproine) on electron transport of spinach chloroplasts has been studied by means of various photosystem I and II reactions. It was found that photosystem II has at least 3 chelator-sensitive sites, photosystem I from 3–4. An uncoupler-affected site was found in each photosystem. In addition, photosystem I had a stimulator site and a soak site. The soak site was sensitive to chelators only after a period of incubation with the chelator.     

Evidence for multiple sites of ferricyanide reduction in chloroplasts

Various sites of ferricyanide reduction were studied in spinach chloroplasts. It was found that in the presence of dibromothymoquinone a fraction of ferricyanide reduction was dibromothymoquinone sensitive, implying that ferricyanide can be reduced by photosystem I as well as photosystem II. To separate ferricyanide reduction sites in photosystem II, orthophenanthroline and dichlorophenyl dimethylurea inhibitions were compared at various pH's. It was noted that at low pH ferricyanide reduction was not completely inhibited by orthophenanthroline. At high pH's, however, inhibition of ferricyanide reduction by orthophenanthroline was complete. It was found that varying concentration of orthophenanthroline at a constant pH showed different degrees of inhibition. In the study of ferricyanide reduction by photosystem II various treatments affecting plastocyanin were performed. It was found that Tween-20 or KCN treatments which inactivated plastocyanin did not completely inactivate ferricyanide reduction. These data support the conclusion that ferricyanide accepts electrons both before and after plastoquinone in photosystem II.Abbreviations DCMU 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethyurea - MV methyl viologen - DBMIB 2,5-dibromothymoquinone - DMBQ 2,6-dimethyl benzoquinone - OP 1,10-orthophenanthroline - TMPD tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine - PS 1 photosystem I - PS II photosystem II - SN sucrose-sodium chloride chloroplasts Supported by NSF Grant BMS 74-19689.