Effects of familial Alzheimer's disease mutations on the folding nucleation of the amyloid beta-protein

The effect of single amino acid substitutions associated with the Italian (E22K), Arctic (E22G), Dutch (E22Q) and Iowa (D23N) familial forms of Alzheimer's disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy on the structure of the 21-30 fragment of the Alzheimer amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is investigated by replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations. The 21-30 segment has been shown in our earlier work to adopt a bend structure in solution that may serve as the folding nucleation site for Aβ. Our simulations reveal that the 24-28 bend motif is retained in all E22 mutants, suggesting that mutations involving residue E22 may not affect the structure of the folding nucleation site of Aβ. Enhanced aggregation in Aβ with familial Alzheimer's disease substitutions may result from the depletion of the E22-K28 salt bridge, which destabilizes the bend structure. Alternately, the E22 mutations may affect longer-range interactions outside the 21-30 segment that can impact the aggregation of Aβ. Substituting at residue D23, on the other hand, leads to the formation of a turn rather than a bend motif, implying that in contrast to E22 mutants, the D23N mutant may affect monomer Aβ folding and subsequent aggregation. Our simulations suggest that the mechanisms by which E22 and D23 mutations affect the folding and aggregation of Aβ are fundamentally different.     

Cross-seeding of wild-type and hereditary variant-type amyloid beta-proteins in the presence of gangliosides

We investigated the molecular mechanism underlying the ganglioside-induced initiation of the assembly of wild and hereditary variant-type amyloid beta-proteins, including Arctic-, Dutch-, and Flemish-type amyloid beta-proteins. We monitored the assembly of amyloid beta-protein by thioflavin-T assay, western blotting and electron microscopy. We also examined how externally added amyloid beta-protein assembles in a cell culture. The assembly of wild-, Arctic-, Dutch-, and Flemish-type amyloid beta-proteins were accelerated in the presence of GM1, GM1, GM3 and GD3 gangliosides. Notably, all of these amyloid beta-proteins accelerated the assembly of different type of amyloid beta-protein, following prior binding to a specific ganglioside. A specific-ganglioside-bound form of variant-type amyloid beta-protein was recognized by the antibody (4396C) specific to the GM1-ganglioside-induced altered conformation of wild-type amyloid beta-protein. Moreover, the assembly of these amyloid beta-proteins in the presence of a specific ganglioside was markedly suppressed by coincubation with 4396C. This study suggests that cross-seeding can occur between wild and hereditary variant-type amyloid beta-proteins despite differences in their amino acid sequences.     

On the nucleation of amyloid beta-protein monomer folding

Neurotoxic assemblies of the amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) have been linked strongly to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we sought to monitor the earliest step in Abeta assembly, the creation of a folding nucleus, from which oligomeric and fibrillar assemblies emanate. To do so, limited proteolysis/mass spectrometry was used to identify protease-resistant segments within monomeric Abeta(1-40) and Abeta(1-42). The results revealed a 10-residue, protease-resistant segment, Ala21-Ala30, in both peptides. Remarkably, the homologous decapeptide, Abeta(21-30), displayed identical protease resistance, making it amenable to detailed structural study using solution-state NMR. Structure calculations revealed a turn formed by residues Val24-Lys28. Three factors contribute to the stability of the turn, the intrinsic propensities of the Val-Gly-Ser-Asn and Gly-Ser-Asn-Lys sequences to form a beta-turn, long-range Coulombic interactions between Lys28 and either Glu22 or Asp23, and hydrophobic interaction between the isopropyl and butyl side chains of Val24 and Lys28, respectively. We postulate that turn formation within the Val24-Lys28 region of Abeta nucleates the intramolecular folding of Abeta monomer, and from this step, subsequent assembly proceeds. This model provides a mechanistic basis for the pathologic effects of amino acid substitutions at Glu22 and Asp23 that are linked to familial forms of AD or cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Our studies also revealed that common C-terminal peptide segments within Abeta(1-40) and Abeta(1-42) have distinct structures, an observation of relevance for understanding the strong disease association of increased Abeta(1-42) production. Our results suggest that therapeutic approaches targeting the Val24-Lys28 turn or the Abeta(1-42)-specific C-terminal fold may hold promise.     

Blocking the cleavage at midportion between gamma- and epsilon-sites remarkably suppresses the generation of amyloid beta-protein

To examine how gamma- and epsilon-cleavages of beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) are related, each cleavage site was replaced with a stretch of Trp that cannot be cleaved by gamma-secretase. Replacement of the gamma- or epsilon-site significantly suppressed secretion of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta), and produced longer Abeta or longer APP intracellular domain, respectively. This cleavage at the midportion between gamma- and epsilon-sites was also gamma-secretase-dependent. Blocking this cleavage with a Trp stretch remarkably suppressed Abeta generation, indicating that the midportion cleavage is required for the generation of Abeta.     

Amyloid beta-protein monomer folding: free-energy surfaces reveal alloform-specific differences

Alloform-specific differences in structural dynamics between amyloid β-protein (Aβ) 40 and Aβ42 appear to underlie the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. To elucidate these differences, we performed microsecond timescale replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations to sample the conformational space of the Aβ monomer and constructed its free-energy surface. We find that neither peptide monomer is unstructured, but rather that each may be described as a unique statistical coil in which five relatively independent folding units exist, comprising residues 1-5, 10-13, 17-22, 28-37, and 39-42, which are connected by four turn structures. The free-energy surfaces of both peptides are characterized by two large basins, comprising conformers with either substantial α-helix or β-sheet content. Conformational transitions within and between these basins are rapid. The two additional hydrophobic residues at the Aβ42 C-terminus, Ile41 and Ala42, significantly increase contacts within the C-terminus, and between the C-terminus and the central hydrophobic cluster (Leu17-Ala21). As a result, the β-structure of Aβ42 is more stable than that of Aβ40, and the conformational equilibrium in Aβ42 shifts towards β-structure. These results suggest that drugs stabilizing α-helical Aβ conformers (or destabilizing the β-sheet state) would block formation of neurotoxic oligomers. The atomic-resolution conformer structures determined in our simulations may serve as useful targets for this purpose. The conformers also provide starting points for simulations of Aβ oligomerization—a process postulated to be the key pathogenetic event in Alzheimer's disease.     

Transgenic potato expressing Abeta reduce Abeta burden in Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Beta amyloid (Abeta) is believed one of the major pathogens of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and the reduction of Abeta is considered a primary therapeutic target. Immunization with Abeta can reduce Abeta burden and pathological features in transgenic AD model mice. Transgenic potato plants were made using genes encoding 5 tandem repeats of Abeta1-42 peptides with an ER retention signal. Amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice (Tg2576) fed with transgenic potato tubers with adjuvant showed a primary immune response and a partial reduction of Abeta burden in the brain. Thus, Abeta tandem repeats can be expressed in transgenic potato plants to form immunologically functional Abeta, and these potatoes has a potential to be used for the prevention and treatment of AD.     

Calmodulin regulates the non-amyloidogenic metabolism of amyloid precursor protein in platelets

A balance between the proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein APP through the amyloidogenic and the non-amyloidogenic pathways controls the production and release of amyloid β-protein, whose accumulation in the brain is associated to the onset of Alzheimer Disease. APP is also expressed on circulating platelets. The regulation of APP processing in these cells is poorly understood. In this work we show that platelets store considerable amounts of APP fragments, including sAPPα, that can be released upon stimulation of platelets. Moreover, platelet stimulation also promotes the proteolysis of intact APP expressed on the cell surface. This process is supported by an ADAM metalloproteinase, and causes the release of sAPPα. Processing of intact platelet APP is promoted also by treatment with calmodulin antagonist W7. W7-induced APP proteolysis occurs through the non-amyloidogenic pathway, is mediated by a metalloproteinase, and causes the release of sAPPα. Co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down experiments revealed a physical association between calmodulin and APP. These results document a novel role of calmodulin in the regulation of non-amyloidogenic processing of APP.     

Modulation of Alzheimer's pathology by cerebro-ventricular grafting of hybridoma cells expressing antibodies against Abeta in vivo

Accumulation in brain of the beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) is considered as crucial pathogenic event causing Alzheimer's disease (AD). Anti-Abeta immune therapy is a powerful means for Abeta clearance from the brain. We recently showed that intravenous injections of anti-Abeta antibodies led to reduction, elevation or no change in brain Abeta42 concentrations of an AD mouse model. We report here, in a second passive immunization protocol, a different bioactivity of same antibodies to alter brain Abeta42 concentrations. Comparing the bioactivity of anti-Abeta antibodies in these two passive immunization paradigms underscores the potential of immune therapy for AD treatment and suggests that both the epitope recognized by the antibody and the mode of antibody administration are crucial for its biological activity.     

Formation of amyloids by Abeta-(1-42) on NGF-differentiated PC12 cells: roles of gangliosides and cholesterol

The conversion of soluble, non-toxic amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) to aggregated, toxic Abeta could be the key step in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Liposomal studies have proposed that Abeta-(1-40) preferentially recognizes a cholesterol-dependent cluster of gangliosides and a conformationally altered form of Abeta promotes the aggregation of the protein. Cell experiments using fluorescein-labeled Abeta-(1-40) supported this model. Here, the interaction of native Abeta-(1-42) with unfixed rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells was visualized using the amyloid-specific dye Congo red. Abeta-(1-42) preferentially bound to ganglioside and cholesterol-rich domains of cell membranes and formed amyloids in a time-dependent manner. These observations corroborate the model involving ganglioside-mediated accumulation of Abeta. The NGF-induced differentiation of PC12 cells into neuron-like cells caused a marked increase in both gangliosides and cholesterol, and thereby greatly potentiated the accumulation and cytotoxicity of Abeta-(1-42). NGF-differentiated cells exposed to Abeta-(1-42) had degenerated neurites, in which ganglioside and cholesterol-rich domains were localized, preceding cell death. A reduction in the amount of cholesterol by the cholesterol synthesis inhibitor compactin almost nullified the formation of amyloids by Abeta-(1-42). Our system using NGF-differentiated PC12 cells and Congo red is useful for screening inhibitors of the formation of amyloids by and cytotoxicity of Abeta.     

Stable insertion of Alzheimer Abeta peptide into the ER membrane strongly correlates with its length

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the deposition of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) plaques in the brain. Full-length amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP) is processed by alpha- and beta-secretases to yield soluble APP derivatives and membrane-bound C-terminal fragments, which are further processed by gamma-secretase to a non-amyloidogenic 3 kDa product or to Abeta fragments. As different Abeta fragments contain different parts of the APP transmembrane helix, one may speculate that they are retained more or less efficiently in the membrane. Here, we use the translocon-mediated insertion of different APP-derived polypeptide segments into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane to assess the propensities for membrane retention of Abeta fragments. Our results show a strong correlation between the length of an Abeta-derived segment and its ability to integrate into the microsomal membrane.     

Renin inhibitor aliskiren exerts neuroprotection against amyloid beta-peptide toxicity in rat cortical neurons

Accumulation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) in senile plaques, a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), has been implicated in neuronal degeneration. Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockers, including the renin inhibitor aliskiren, are a group of clinically relevant anti-hypertensive agents. The present study was initiated to investigate whether aliskiren may modulate Aβ neurotoxicity as an additional function aside from its established property of lowering blood pressure. We found aliskiren conferred neuronal resistance to Aβ toxicity in primary rat cortical cultures. Moreover, both Aβ25-35 and Aβ1-42 induced renin expression in cortical neurons; in parallel, a heightened expression of renin was detected in the cerebral cortices of 9-month-old AD transgenic mice. Notably, aliskiren blocked Aβ-mediated neuronal induction of renin. We therefore concluded that aliskiren may carry neuroprotective action against Aβ toxicity. Furthermore, the aliskiren effects may involve downregulation of renin expression induced by Aβ.     

胰岛素降解酶与阿尔兹海默病的发生

阿尔兹海默病（AD）是以脑中β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）累积和神经纤维缠绕（NFTs）为主要病理特征的神经退行性疾病,而胰岛素降解酶（IDE）是人体内最主要的Aβ降解酶之一。因此,IDE在AD进程中的作用受到了研究人员的广泛关注。大多数研究显示,AD的病理进程伴随着脑中IDE编码基因的表达和IDE活性的下降。IDE敲除动物也能够表现出AD样表型,同时已有研究尝试靶向于IDE进行AD的治疗。本文通过总结IDE在AD患者和AD模型动物脑中表达情况的变化,以及IDE敲除动物的表型,对近期IDE在AD发生中作用的研究进行了总结。     

The influence of simvastatin, atorvastatin and high-cholesterol diet on acetylcholinesterase activity, amyloid beta and cholesterol synthesis in rat brain

OBJECTIVE: There is evidence to suppose that cholesterol-lowering medicine might confer protection against dementia, probably via modulation of cholesterol synthesis in the brain. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential influence of statins and cholesterol diet on selected parameters relevant to Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology. METHODS: For 15 days, rats were orally administered simvastatin (10 or 20mg/kg b.wt.), atorvastatin (10 or 20mg/kg b.wt.), or aqua (control group); and one group was fed high-cholesterol (2%) diet. At the end of experiments brain (and plasma) cholesterol, lathosterol, hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase protein, acetylcholinesterase activity, amyloid beta (40 and 42) and cholesterol synthesis rate (using the incorporation of deuterium from deuterated water) were determined and statistically compared to those of aqua. RESULTS: Both statins were able to lower cholesterol in the plasma, but none elicited an effect on total brain cholesterol. Significant reductions of brain lathosterol and cholesterol synthesis rate were observed after simvastatin and atorvastatin treatment. Acetylcholinesterase activity, amyloid beta and hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase levels remained unaffected by the two drugs. CONCLUSIONS: This study brings additional evidence of a role for statins in cholesterol synthesis in the brain. Our data question the relationship between amyloid beta, acetylcholinesterase activity and cholesterol synthesis in the rat brain as well as the assumption about no exchange between peripheral and brain cholesterol pools.     

Driving force of binding of amyloid beta-protein to lipid bilayers

Amyloid β-protein (Aβ) has been reported to interact with a variety of lipid species, although the thermodynamic driving force remains unclear. We investigated the binding of Aβs labeled with the dye diethylaminocoumarin (DAC-Aβs) to lipid bilayers under various conditions. DAC-Aβ-(1-40) electrostatically bound to anionic and cationic lipids at acidic and alkaline interfacial pH, respectively. However, at neutral pH, electroneutral Aβ did not bind to these lipids, indicating little hydrophobic interaction between Aβ-(1-40) and the acyl chains of lipids. In contrast, DAC-Aβ associated with glycolipids even under electroneutral conditions. These results suggested that hydrogen-bonding as well as hydrophobic interactions with sugar groups of glycolipids drive the membrane binding of Aβ-(1-40).     

Leptin inhibits amyloid β-protein degradation through decrease of neprilysin expression in primary cultured astrocytes

Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by accumulation of extracellular deposits of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) in the brain. The steady state level of Aβ in the brain is determined by the balance between its production and removal; the latter occurring through egress across blood and CSF barriers as well as Aβ degradation. The major Aβ-degrading enzymes in the brain are neprilysin (NEP) and insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), which may promote Aβ deposition in patients with sporadic late-onset AD. Epidemiological studies have suggested an inverse relationship between the adipocytokine leptin levels and the onset of AD. However, the mechanisms underlying the relationship remain uncertain. We investigated whether leptin is associated with Aβ degradation by inducing NEP and IDE expression within primary cultured astrocytes. Leptin significantly decreased the expression of NEP but not IDE in a concentration- and time-dependent manner through the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in cultured rat astrocytes. Furthermore, leptin inhibited the degradation of exogenous Aβ in primary cultured astrocytes. These results suggest that leptin suppresses Aβ degradation by NEP through activation of ERK.     

Interaction of dipeptydil peptidase IV with amyloid peptides

The aggregates of amyloid beta peptides (Aβs) are regarded as one of the main pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). An imbalance between the rates of synthesis and clearance of Aβs is considered to be a possible cause for the onset of AD. Dipeptidyl peptidases II and IV (DPPII and DPPIV) are serine proteases removing N-terminal dipeptides from polypeptides and proteins with proline or alanine on the penultimate position. Alanine is an N-terminal penultimate residue in Аβs, and we presumed that DPPII and DPPIV could cleave them. The results of present in vitro research demonstrate for the first time the ability of DPPIV to truncate the commercial Aβ40 and Aβ42 peptides, to hinder the fibril formation by them and to participate in the disaggregation of preformed fibrils of these peptides. The increase of absorbance at 334 nm due to complex formation between primary amines with o-phtalaldehyde was used to show cleaving of Aβ40 and Aβ42. The time-dependent increase of the quantity of primary amines during incubation of peptides in the presence of DPPIV suggested their truncation by DPPIV, but not by DPPII. The parameters of the enzymatic breakdown by DPPIV were determined for Aβ40 (K_m = 37.5 μM, k_cat/K_m = 1.7 × 10³ M⁻¹sec⁻¹) and Aβ42 (K_m = 138.4 μM, k_cat/K_m = 1.90 × 10² M⁻¹sec⁻¹). The aggregation-disaggregation of peptides was controlled by visualization on transmission electron microscope and by Thioflavin-T fluorescence on spectrofluorimeter and fluorescent microscope. DPPIV hindered the peptide aggregation/fibrillation during 3-4 days incubation in 20 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, 37 °C by 50–80%. Ovalbumin, BSA and DPPII did not show this effect. In the presence of DPPIV, the preformed fibrils were disaggregated by 30–40%. Conclusion: for the first time it was shown that the Aβ40 and Aβ42 are substrates of DPPIV. DPPIV prohibits the fibrillation of peptides and promotes disaggregation of their preformed aggregates.     

The effect of Parkinson's-disease-associated mutations on the deubiquitinating enzyme UCH-L1

The neuronal ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (UCH) UCH-L1 has been linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we present a study on the structure, stability, unfolding, and dynamics of wild-type and mutant UCH-L1. Fluorescence, far-UV CD, and NMR measurements were used to establish that the unfolding of UCH-L1 is three-state under equilibrium conditions and that an intermediate is populated. S18Y and I93M mutants, which are associated with a decreased risk or an increased risk of PD, respectively, are less stable than wild type. However, while there is minimal structural perturbation in the S18Y mutant, the I93M mutation is more disruptive. In particular, the NMR data suggest that there are local rearrangements around the site of the mutation, which we propose results in the exposure of hydrophobic surface area. This may have two consequences: an increased tendency towards, firstly, aggregation in vivo, and, secondly, aberrant interactions with tubulin and the chaperone-mediated autophagy machinery as observed by other groups, both of which may be involved in neurodegenerative processes.     

Ovine colostrum nanopeptide affects amyloid beta aggregation

A colostral proline-rich polypeptide complex (PRP) consisting of over 30 peptides shows beneficial effects in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients when administered in the form of sublinqual tablets called Colostrinin. The aim of the present studies was to investigate whether nanopeptide fragment of PRP (NP) - one of the PRP complex components can affect aggregation of amyloid β (Aβ1-42). The effect of NP on Aβ aggregation was studied using Thioflavin T (ThT) binding, atomic force microscopy, and analyzing circular dichroism spectra. Results presented suggest that NP can directly interact with amyloid beta, inhibit its aggregation and disrupt existing aggregates acting as a β sheet breaker and reduce toxicity induced by aggregated forms of Aβ.     

Abeta(31-35) and Abeta(25-35) fragments of amyloid beta-protein induce cellular death through apoptotic signals: Role of the redox state of methionine-35

In order to clarify the basis of neuronal toxicity exerted by the shortest active peptides of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta), the toxic effects of Abeta(31-35) and Abeta(25-35) peptides on isolated rat brain mitochondria were investigated. The results show that exposure of isolated rat brain mitochondria to Abeta(31-35) and Abeta(25-35) peptides determines: (i) release of cytochrome c; (ii) mitochondrial swelling and (iii) a significant reduction in mitochondrial oxygen consumption. In contrast, the amplitude of these events resulted attenuated in isolated brain mitochondria exposed to the Abeta(31-35)Met35(OX) in which methionine-35 was oxidized to methionine sulfoxide. The Abeta peptide derivative with norleucine substituting Met-35, i.e., Abeta(31-35)Nle-35, had not effect on any of the biochemical parameters tested. We have further characterized the action of Abeta(31-35) and Abeta(25-35) peptides on neuronal cells. Taken together our result indicate that Abeta(31-35) and Abeta(25-35) peptides in non-aggregated form, i.e., predominantly monomeric, are strongly neurotoxic, having the ability to enter within the cells, determining mitochondrial damage with an evident trigger of apoptotic signals. Such a mechanism of toxicity seems to be dependent by the redox state of methionine-35.     

Clathrin-mediated endocytic proteins are upregulated in the cortex of the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease-like amyloid pathology

Amyloid-β (Aβ) is cleaved from amyloid precursor protein (APP) predominantly after APP has trafficked through the secretory pathway and then become re-internalised by endocytosis. Clathrin-mediated and, more recently, clathrin-independent endocytosis have both been implicated in this process. Furthermore, endocytic abnormalities have been identified in cases of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), however, the relevance of these changes to the aetiology of the disease remains unclear. We therefore examined the expression of proteins related to these endocytic processes in the cortex of Tg2576 mice that overexpress the Swedish mutation in APP, and consequently overexpress Aβ, to determine if there were any changes in their associated pathways. We identified significant increases in the levels of clathrin, dynamin and PICALM, all proteins intimately involved with the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway, in the transgenic animals. However, levels of proteins associated with flotillin or caveolin-mediated endocytic pathways remained unchanged. These results emphasise the importance of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in the aetiology of AD and reinforce the results of the recent GWAS studies that identified genes for clathrin-mediated endocytosis as susceptibility genes for AD. Such studies in transgenic mice will allow us to learn more about the role of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in AD.