High-tech biomedical research: lessons from Iran's experience

Iran has recently made a significant progress in the field of biomedical science and launched an appreciable number of new high-tech biomedical research projects. Review of Iran's experience in advancing its biomedical research and the pitfalls the country encountered during the years of its progress could be of interest to other countries with similar technological conditions. As needs assessment and human resources have pivotal roles in any research infrastructure, here, we have delineated these factors and explored ways by which optimum advantage could be gained from them.     

HIV infection in India: Epidemiology, molecular epidemiology and pathogenesis

The year 1986 saw first case of HIV infection as well as first report of AIDS case in India. Since then the epidemic has spread throughout the country. In the recent years there is evidence of epidemic being stabilized with decrease in new infections reported from some parts of the country. The absolute number of HIV infections in the country is expected to be close to 2.5 million and National AIDS Control Programme, phase III is geared to contain the epidemic. HIV viruses circulating in India predominantly belong to HIV-1 subtype C. However, there have been occasional reports of HIV-1 subtype A and B. Matter of concern is reports of A/C and B/C mosaic viruses that are being reported from different parts of the country. The data on HIV drug resistance from India is rather limited. Most of the studies have shown that the virus strains from drug naïve patients do not show significant level of drug resistance mutations. The few immunological studies in Indian patients show that the Indian HIV infected patients show both HIV-specific CTL responses as well as neutralizing antibody response. Mapping of CTL epitopes showed that while Indian patients identify same regions of Gag antigen as recognized by South African subtype C infected patients, some regions are uniquely recognized by Indian patients. There are very few studies on host genetic factors in India in context with HIV infection. However there are evidences reported of association of host genetic factors such as HLA types and haplotypes and HIV disease.     

Pyrethroid resistance and mechanisms of resistance in field strains of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Pyrethroid resistance was found in 54 field strains of Helicoverpa armigera collected between 1995 and 1999 from 23 districts in seven states of India. LD50 values of the field strains ranged from 0.06 to 72.2 microg/larva with slopes of 0.5-3.1. Resistance was highest in regions where pyrethroid use was frequent (four to eight applications per season). Resistance to deltamethrin was exceptionally high with resistance ratios of 13,570 and 27,160 in two strains collected during February 1998 in central India. Resistance to cypermethrin, fenvalerate and cyhalothrin also was high with resistance ratios of >1,000 in four strains collected from central and southern India. Resistance ratios were below 100 in >50% of the strains tested. Pyrethroid resistance was high in strains collected from the districts in Andhra Pradesh where a majority of the cotton farmer suicide cases in India were reported. Resistance to pyrethroids appeared to have increased over 1995-1998 in most of the areas surveyed. Studies carried out through estimation of detoxification enzyme activity and synergists indicated that enhanced cytochrome p450 and esterase activities were probably important mechanisms for pyrethroid resistance in field strains. Pyrethroid nerve insensitivity also was found to be a major mechanism in some parts of the country where the use of pyrethroids was high. The information presented illustrates the importance of proper insect management programs to avoid the consequences associated with improper insecticide use.     

Fifty years of hydrobiological research in India

The paper provides an overview of the developments in hydrobiological studies in India during the past fifty years, and links them with a historical perspective of the pre-independence studies. Hydrobiological studies which were well developed in the beginning of this century, gained momentum soon after independence as all kinds of aquatic habitats were investigated for the assessment, conservation and optimum utilization of inland fishery resources of the country. However, the environmental issues which dominated since the 1972 Stockholm Conference, and growing realization of the problem of water pollution, resulted in a rapid proliferation of hydrobiological studies which tend to focus on correlation between the distribution of various organisms and degree of water pollution or the effects of various organic and inorganic pollutants. A sampling of published literature reveals that long-term, analytical and experimental studies of the whole ecosystems (natural or experimental), and studies of population interactions, biomanipulation, food chain dynamics, and energy flows are wholly lacking. The paper calls for the strengthening of field and laboratory facilities, and establishment of regional and national institutes of aquatic ecology which will be necessary for the management of both the water quality and aquatic biological resources for sustainable development.     

Synergism between research and simulation models of estuarine microbial food webs

Construction of mathematical simulation models helps to organize current information and extend inferences from available data. During the past two decades, microbial ecology has undergone rapid developments in both quantity and quality of available data. In particular, considerable advances have been made in our knowledge of microbial food web dynamics in the Duplin River watershed at Sapelo Island, Georgia. Here we provide examples of how modeling and microbial ecology have interfaced. In the early 1970s, construction of a 14-compartment model of carbon flow through a salt marsh ecosystem aided in directing method development and field experiments on the sediment microbial community. In turn, the results of field experiments corroborated the model's postulated controls on the community. Also, during the past 12 years we have developed a series of simulation models reflecting the growing information on the aquatic microbial food web. Early models provided evidence for the microbial loop but illustrated the paucity of knowledge concerning controls for bacterial growth on detritus. Results from newer methods in microbial ecology and studies from the Duplin River have allowed us to construct a model which provides realistic simulations but is also highly sensitive to certain parameter value changes (e.g., in organic matter availability and grazing by protozoans). Thus improvements in model structure and corroboration of the models with extant data have been closely tied to methodological and conceptual advances in microbial ecology. The relationship is viewed as synergistic, as needs for model parameter values and equation forms have directed further development of methods, experimentation, and field observations.     

Development of region-specific emission factors and estimation of methane emission from rice fields in the East, Southeast and South Asian countries

Rice cultivation areas in East, Southeast and South Asia account for 89% of the world total, and field measurements of methane (CH₄) emission from rice cultivation have been widely performed in this area. In this paper, we assembled most of the measurements and developed region‐specific CH₄ emission factors. Efforts were made in order to regionalize rice fields by climate and soil properties, and to incorporate the effect of organic input and water regime on emission. Data on rice cultivation areas of 1995 were collected at subdivision level (province, state, prefecture, etc.). Total emission from these areas was estimated at 25.1 Tg CH₄ year ^{? 1}, of which 7.67 Tg was emitted from China and 5.88 Tg from India. Irrigated and rainfed rice fields contributed 70.4 and 27.5% to the total emission, respectively. Deepwater rice fields had a very small share. A high‐resolution and quality emission distribution map was constructed as the emission was directly estimated at province level and below that, a 30‐second land‐use dataset was used in order to translate the emission to grid format. As the rice cultivation area in the study region accounts for 89% of the world total, extrapolating the estimate to the global scale indicates a global emission of 28.2 Tg CH₄ year ^{? 1}. The estimate was compared with country reports made by local scientists. For some countries – such as Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Japan, South Korea, Pakistan and the Philippines – the results of this estimate agree reasonably well with their country reports (CV < 15%). For some other countries – such as China, India and Bangladesh – there is relatively large disagreement between our estimate and their country reports. The reasons for the discrepancies were discussed.     

Current status of fertility control methods in India

Approximately 48.2% of couples of 15 to 49 years of age practice family planning methods in India. Female sterilization accounts for 34.2%, with male sterilization declining from 3·4% in 1992–93 to 1·9% in 1998–99. Use of the condom increased to 3·1% from 2·4%. There is an urgent need for research to develop new contraceptive modalities especially for men and also for women and to make existing methods more safe, affordable and acceptable. Current efforts in India to develop a male contraceptive are mainly directed towards (i) development of antispermatogenic agents to suppress sperm production, (ii) prevention of sperm maturation, (iii) prevention of sperm transport through vas deferens or rendering these sperm infertile and (iv) prevention of sperm deposition. Research work in the field of prevention of sperm transport through vas deferens has made significant advances. Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA) disturbed the electrical charge of spermatozoa leading to acrosome rupture and consequent loss in fertilizing ability of sperm. A multicentre phase-III clinical trial using SMA is continuing and it is hoped that the SMA approach would be available in the near future as an indigenously developed injectable intra-vasal male contraceptive. The safety and efficacy of available oral contraceptives were evaluated. An indigenously developed oral contraceptive ‘Centchorman’, which is a nonsteroidal, weakly estrogenic but potently antiestrogenic, was found to be safe and effective and is now being marketed in India since 1991 as a ‘once a week’ pill. Cyclofem and Mesigyna have been recommended as injectable contraceptives with proper counselling and service delivery by Indian studies. It has been recommended that these injectable contraceptives be added to the existing range of contraceptive methods available in the National Family Planning Programme. Based on the Indian studies CuT 200 was also recommended. Studies have indicated the advantage of intrauterine devices (IUD); they are long acting, relatively easily removed and fertility returns rapidly after their removal. Recent studies have recommended CuT 200 for use up to 5 years. The combination of some plant products i.e.Embelia ribes, Borax andPiper longum has been found to be safe and effective as a female contraceptive and the results of phase-I clinical trials are encouraging. Research work is going on in the country in various areas with special reference to hormonal contraceptive — a three monthly injectable contraceptive, immuno-contraceptives, antiprogestins, etc.     

Global methods for protein glycosylation analysis by mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometry has been an analytical tool of choice for glycosylation analysis of individual proteins. Over the last 5 years several previously and newly developed mass spectrometry methods have been extended to global glycoprotein studies. In this review we discuss the importance of these global studies and the advances that have been made in enrichment analyses and fragmentation methods. We also briefly describe relevant sample preparation methods that have been used for the analysis of a single glycoprotein that could be extrapolated to global studies. Finally this review covers aspects of improvements and advances on the instrument front which are important to future global glycoproteomic studies.     

Selection and reversion of azamethipos-resistance in a field population of the housefly Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae), and the underlying biochemical mechanisms

The organophosphorus insecticide, azamethiphos, is widely used throughout the world to control the housefly, Musca domestica (L.). Since its commercial introduction to Denmark in 1983 for this purpose, we have monitored the toxicity of azamethiphos to housefly populations at livestock farms throughout the country and carried out regular field studies. The findings of our field studies, which have revealed a strong potential for resistance development, have been born out by regular surveys showing that resistance has increased in recent years. Through the analysis of a field derived laboratory strain, we have implicated oxidative and hydrolytic mechanisms together with altered acetylcholinesterase in this resistance. Our field and laboratory studies have also indicated that resistance is relatively unstable, and can revert in the absence of selection. The implications of our findings for the continued efficacy of azamethiphos are discussed.     

Flood plain wetland fisheries of India: with special reference to impact of climate change

Floodplain wetlands of India are biologically rich sensitive ecosystem that support unique aquatic biodiversity and play vital role in providing livelihood and nutritional security to a large section of the population of the country. Besides contributing to the environmental sustainability through Carbon sequestration, flood plain wetlands also serve as source for harvesting flood and rain water. Covering around 5.5 Lakh ha area, the flood plain wetlands of India are one of the major sources for fish production of the country, offering vast potential for capture as well as culture based fisheries. Degradation and shrinkage of the floodplain wetlands have been recorded due to several natural and anthropogenic reasons. In addition to that, the change in the climatic condition may have a far more devastating impact on these natural resources. Substantial change in climate with increasing temperature trend (0.60 °C during last 112 years) as well as changing pattern and intensity of rainfall have been reported in India. It is projected that extreme climate changes may have profound impact on wetlands, mediated through several direct or indirect pathways. Attention is urgently required at different levels for conservation and revamping of these resources along with coping up and mitigation strategies to address the impending challenges. However, there is dearth of scientific information specific to the flood plain wetlands of India. This paper reviews the present status and importance of the flood plain wetlands of India with special reference to impact of climate change along with coping-up and mitigation measures.     

鹿科麂属动物基因组演化研究进展

鹿科麂属(Muntiacus, Cervidae)在近两三百万年内经历了快速物种辐射, 但其物种间核型差异巨大. 5个现生种核型数据显示, 该类群染色体数目范围从小麂(Muntiacus reevesi)的46条到赤麂(M. muntjak vaginalis)的6条. 该类群的基因组在较短时间内发生了快速演化, 使其成为进化生物学研究的理想材料. 40多年来, 技术的革新使该领域的研究不断深入, 染色体重排的类型、推动重排的分子机制及物种间的核型演化历程逐渐被阐释. 而且, 研究中发现, 雄性黑麂(M. crinifrons)1p+4染色体的演化途径与哺乳动物Y染色体的演化历程相似, 可成为哺乳动物性染色体演化研究的珍贵模型. 有关麂属动物基因组演化依然有许多问题等待更加全面、深入的探讨. 本文总结了该领域研究进展, 并对未来研究热点进行了展望.     

Fifty years of muscle and the sliding filament hypothesis.

This review describes the early beginnings of X-ray diffraction work on muscle structure and the contraction mechanism in the MRC Unit in the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, and later work in the MRC Molecular Biology Laboratory in Hills Road, Cambridge, where the author worked for many years, and elsewhere. The work has depended heavily on instrumentation development, for which the MRC laboratory had made excellent provision. The search for ever higher X-ray intensity for time-resolved studies led to the development of synchrotron radiation as an exceptionally powerful X-ray source. This led to the first direct evidence for cross-bridge tilting during force generation in muscle. Further improvements in technology have made it possible to study the fine structure of some of the X-ray reflections from contracting muscle during mechanical transients, and these are currently providing remarkable insights into the detailed mechanism of force development by myosin cross-bridges.     

Morphological Reassessment of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triops cancriformis</Emphasis> Bosc (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Notostraca) Population from Kashmir,India with Comments on the Distribution of the Species in India

Triops cancriformis was reported first from India in 1871 and has been subsequently shown to occur in different regions of the country. In this paper, we have morphologically re-examined the Triops cancriformis population from Kashmir from where this species was first reported. We have compared some morphological traits of our T. cancriformis population with a few closely related species. The result shows that the Kashmir population is more similar to the typical non gonochoric Triops cancriformis in morphology. From literature records, we show that T. cancriformis has a peculiar distribution in India with no record of occurrences below 23°N. We also highlight the 125 years of history of T. cancriformis records from India.     

印度生物遗传资源和相关传统知识获取制度发展动态研究

印度是世界上生物多样性最丰富的国家之一,主张遗传资源主权归国家所有并实现遗传资源惠益公平分享。印度政府于2003年颁布了《生物多样性法》,2004年又补充颁布了《生物多样性条例》,明确规定国家对其生物资源及相关传统知识的主权、保护原则、主管部门和管理体系、获取和惠益分享等问题。2014年又制订发布了《生物资源及相关传统知识获取规则指南》,对生物考察和利用、商业开发的惠益形式与比例、成果转化程序与惠益分享方式、知识产权获取程序与惠益分享形式、第三方转让为研究或商业利用、豁免审批情况等都作出了详细明确的规定。从印度遗传资源获取与惠益分享制度体系发展动态来看,印度的制度构建过程是循序渐进,不断更新,逐步趋于完善、细化。印度的遗传资源制度体系建设紧跟国际发展形势,从原则性的规定发展到具体措施。印度与中国生物遗传资源及相关传统知识国情相似,国际谈判立场一致,印度的遗传资源获取与惠益分享管理制度体系构建思路值得中国在国内遗传资源获取与惠益分享国家制度体系构建借鉴。     

Full-Genome Sequencing as a Basis for Molecular Epidemiology Studies of Bluetongue Virus in India

Since 1998 there have been significant changes in the global distribution of bluetongue virus (BTV). Ten previously exotic BTV serotypes have been detected in Europe, causing severe disease outbreaks in naïve ruminant populations. Previously exotic BTV serotypes were also identified in the USA, Israel, Australia and India. BTV is transmitted by biting midges (Culicoides spp.) and changes in the distribution of vector species, climate change, increased international travel and trade are thought to have contributed to these events. Thirteen BTV serotypes have been isolated in India since first reports of the disease in the country during 1964. Efficient methods for preparation of viral dsRNA and cDNA synthesis, have facilitated full-genome sequencing of BTV strains from the region. These studies introduce a new approach for BTV characterization, based on full-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analyses, facilitating the identification of BTV serotype, topotype and reassortant strains. Phylogenetic analyses show that most of the equivalent genome-segments of Indian BTV strains are closely related, clustering within a major eastern BTV ‘topotype’. However, genome-segment 5 (Seg-5) encoding NS1, from multiple post 1982 Indian isolates, originated from a western BTV topotype. All ten genome-segments of BTV-2 isolates (IND2003/01, IND2003/02 and IND2003/03) are closely related (>99% identity) to a South African BTV-2 vaccine-strain (western topotype). Similarly BTV-10 isolates (IND2003/06; IND2005/04) show >99% identity in all genome segments, to the prototype BTV-10 (CA-8) strain from the USA. These data suggest repeated introductions of western BTV field and/or vaccine-strains into India, potentially linked to animal or vector-insect movements, or unauthorised use of ‘live’ South African or American BTV-vaccines in the country. The data presented will help improve nucleic acid based diagnostics for Indian serotypes/topotypes, as part of control strategies.     

Current state and perspectives of fungal DNA barcoding and rapid identification procedures

Fungal research is experiencing a new wave of methodological improvements that most probably will boost mycology as profoundly as molecular phylogeny has done during the last 15 years. Especially the next generation sequencing technologies can be expected to have a tremendous effect on fungal biodiversity and ecology research. In order to realise the full potential of these exciting techniques by accelerating biodiversity assessments, identification procedures of fungi need to be adapted to the emerging demands of modern large-scale ecological studies. But how should fungal species be identified in the near future? While the answer might seem trivial to most microbiologists, taxonomists working with fungi may have other views. In the present review, we will analyse the state of the art of the so-called barcoding initiatives in the light of fungi, and we will seek to evaluate emerging trends in the field. We will furthermore demonstrate that the usability of DNA barcoding as a major tool for identification of fungi largely depends on the development of high-quality sequence databases that are thoroughly curated by taxonomists and systematists.     

The historic biogeography of India: isolation or contact?

Geophysical maps depicting continental movement have consistently shown India, as it moved northward, to be located far out in the Tethys Sea. India split off from the African east coast about 148 m.y.a. From that time onward, according to almost all geophysical accounts, India was isolated from all of other continents until the early Miocene when it made contact with Eurasia. But the biological data, both fossil and Recent, indicate that this concept cannot be correct. If India had really existed as an isolated, oceanic continent for about 100 m.y., it should have developed a peculiar biota with many endemic genera and families in its terrestrial and shallow marine habitats. But there are virtually no remains of organisms indicating that India was isolated for any substantial time (millions of years). Instead, we find that almost all Indian taxa were possessed in common with other continents. As time went on, the northern relationships became stronger and the southern ones weaker. Most of the recent geophysical accounts show India not making contact with Eurasia until the early Miocene, but fossil materials show that this event must have taken place by the early Eocene. It has been postulated that, as India moved northward, it created a biogeographic barrier that separated marine fish populations and resulted in the east-west provinces that are now apparent in the Indian Ocean. At the same time, the barrier effect was supposed to have resulted in the formation of sister species that are now located far apart. Information currently available indicates that most living, tropical marine species are probably not over 3 m.y. old. Consequently, the northward movement of India, which took place primarily between 148 and 50 m.y.a., could have no bearing on the relationships of modern species.     

Highlights from the Indo-US workshop “Cyanobacteria: molecular networks to biofuels” held at Lonavala, India during December 16–20, 2012

An Indo-US workshop on “Cyanobacteria: molecular networks to biofuels” was held December 16–20, 2012 at Lagoona Resort, Lonavala, India. The workshop was jointly organized by two of the authors, PPW, a chemical engineer and LAS, a biologist, thereby ensuring a broad and cross-disciplinary participation. The main objective of the workshop was to bring researchers from academia and industry of the two countries together with common interests in cyanobacteria or microalgae and derived biofuels. An exchange of ideas resulted from a series of oral and poster presentations and, importantly, through one-on-one discussions during tea breaks and meals. Another key objective was to introduce young researchers of India to the exciting field of cyanobacterial physiology, modeling, and biofuels. PhD students and early stage researchers were especially encouraged to participate and about half of the 75 participants belonged to this category. The rest were comprised of senior researchers, including 13–15 invited speakers from each country. Overall, twenty-four institutes from 12 states of India were represented. The deliberations, which are being compiled in the present special issue, revolved mainly around molecular aspects of cyanobacterial biofuels including metabolic engineering, networks, genetic regulation, circadian rhythms, and stress responses. Representatives of some key funding agencies and industry provided a perspective and opportunities in the field and for bilateral collaboration. This article summarizes deliberations that took place at the meeting and provides a bird’s eye view of the ongoing research in the field in the two countries.