Surfacing activity and food utilization in the air-breathing fish polyacanthus cupanus exposed to constant Po2

The influence of feeding on the surfacing frequency of the air-breathing fishPolyacanthus cupanus was investigated. Feeding increased the surfacing and swimming activities. Food conversion, maintenance requirements and energy spent in swimming and surfacing were measured under different feeding regimes.     

Retinopetal neuronal system in the brain of an air-breathing teleost fish,Channa punctata

Summary Retinopetal neurons were visualised in the telencephalon and diencephalon of an air-breathing teleost fish, Channa punctata, following administration of cobaltous lysine to the optic nerve. The labelled perikarya (n=45–50) were always located on the side contralateral to the optic nerve that had received the neuronal tracer. The rostral-most back-filled cell bodies were located in the nucleus olfactoretinalis at the junction between the olfactory bulb and the telencephalon. In the area ventralis telencephali, two groups of telencephaloretinopetal neurons were identified near the ventral margin of the telencephalon. The rostral hypothalamus exhibited retrogradely labelled cells in three discrete areas of the lateral preoptic area, which was bordered medially by the nucleus praeopticus periventricularis and nucleus praeopticus, and laterally by the lateral forebrain bundle. In addition to a dorsal and a ventral group, a third population of neurons was located ventral to the lateral forebrain bundle adjacent to the optic tract. The dorsal group of neurons exhibited extensive collaterals; a few extended laterally towards the lateral forebrain bundle, whereas others ran into the dorsocentral area of the area dorsalis telencephali. A few processes extended via the anterior commissure into the telencephalon ipsilateral to the optic nerve that had been exposed to cobaltous lysine. However, the ventral cell group did not possess collaterals. In the diencephalon, retinopetal cells were visualised in the nucleus opticus dorsolateralis located in the pretectal area; these were the largest retinopetal perikarya of the brain. The caudal-most nucleus that possessed labelled somata was the retinothalamic nucleus; it contained the largest number of retinopetal cells. The limited number of widely distributed neurons in the forebrain, some with extensive collaterals, might participate in functional integration of different brain areas involved in feeding, which in this species is influenced largely by taste, not solely by vision.     

Cardiorespiratory responses of the woodchuck and porcupine to CO2 and hypoxia

Summary The burrow-dwelling woodchuck (Marmota monax) (mean body wt.=4.45±1 kg) was compared to a similar-sized (5.87±1.5 kg) but arboreal rodent, the porcupine (Erithrizon dorsatum), in terms of its ventilatory and heart rate responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia, and its blood characteristics.V _T,f,T _I andT _E were measured by whole-body plethysmography in four awake individuals of each species. The woodchuck has a longerT _E/T _TOT (0.76±0.03) than the porcupine (0.61±0.03). The woodchuck had a higher threshold and significantly smaller slope to its CO₂ ventilatory response compared to the porcupine, but showed no difference in its hypoxic ventilatory response. The woodchuck P₅₀ of 27.8 was hardly different from the porcupine value of 30.7, but the Bohr factor, –0.72, was greater than the porcupine's, –0.413. The woodchuck breathing air has PaCO₂=48 (±2) torr, PaO₂=72 (±6), pHa=7.357 (±0.01); the porcupine blood gases are PaCO₂=34.6 (±2.8), PaO₂=94.9 (±5), pHa=7.419 (±0.03), suggesting a difference in PaCO₂/pH set points. The woodchuck exhibited no reduction in heart rate with hypoxia, nor did it have the low normoxic heart rate observed in other burrowing mammals.     

Characterization of carbonic anhydrase and anion exchange in the erythrocytes of bowfin (Amia calva), a primitive air-breathing fish

The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of carbonic anhydrase (CA) and the Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchanger (Band 3; AE1) in the erythrocytes of bowfin (Amia calva), a primitive air-breathing fish, in order to further understand the strategies of blood CO₂ transport in lower vertebrates and gain insights into the evolution of the vertebrate erythrocyte proteins, CA and Band 3. A significant amount of CA activity was measured in the erythrocytes of bowfin (70 mmol CO₂ min⁻¹ ml⁻¹), although it appeared to be lower than that in the erythrocytes of teleost fish. The turnover number (K_cat) of bowfin erythrocyte CA was intermediate between that of the slow type I CA isozyme in agnathans and elasmobranchs and the fast type II CA in the erythrocytes of the more recent teleost fishes, but the inhibition properties of bowfin erythrocyte CA were similar to the fast mammalian CA isozyme, CA II. In contrast to previous findings, a plasma CA inhibitor was found to be present in the blood of bowfin. Bowfin erythrocytes were also found to possess a high rate of Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchange (6 nmol HCO₃⁻ s⁻¹ cm⁻²) that was sensitive to DIDS. Visualization of erythrocyte membrane proteins by SDS-PAGE revealed a major band in the 100 kDa range for the trout, which would be consistent with the anion exchanger. In contrast, the closest major band for the membranes of bowfin erythrocytes was around the 140 kDa range. Taken together, these results suggest that the strategy for blood CO₂ transport in bowfin is probably similar to that in most other vertebrates despite several unique characteristics of erythrocyte CA and Band 3 in these primitive fish.     

Oxygen transport and cardiovascular responses in skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) exposed to acute hypoxia

Summary Responses to acute hypoxia were measured in skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) (1–3 kg body weight). Fish were prevented from making swimming movements by a spinal injection of lidocaine and were placed in front of a seawater delivery pipe to provide ram ventilation of the gills. Fish could set their own ventilation volumes by adjusting mouth gape. Heart rate, dorsal and ventral aortic blood pressures, and cardiac output were continuously monitored during normoxia (inhalant water (PO ₂>150 mmHg) and three levels of hypoxia (inhalant water PO ₂130, 90, and 50 mmHg). Water and blood samples were taken for oxygen measurements in fluids afferent and efferent to the gills. From these data, various measures of the effectiveness of oxygen transfer, and branchial and systemic vascular resistance were calculated. Despite high ventilation volumes (4–71·min^-1·kg^-1), tunas extract approximately 50% of the oxygen from the inhalant water, in part because high cardiac outputs (115–132 ml·min^-1·kg^-1) result in ventilation/perfusion conductance ratios (0.75–1.1) close to the theoretically ideal value of 1.0. Therefore, tunas have oxygen transfer factors (ml O₂·min^-1·mmHg^-1·kg^-1) that are 10–50 times greater than those of other fishes. The efficiency of oxygen transfer from water in tunas (65%) matches that measured in teleosts with ventilation volumes and order of magnitude lower. The high oxygen transfer factors of tunas are made possible, in part, by a large gill surface area; however, this appears to carry a considerable osmoregulatory cost as the metabolic rate of gills may account for up 70% of the total metabolism in spinally blocked (i.e., non-swimming) fish. During hypoxia, skipjack and yellowfin tunas show a decrease in heart rate and increase in ventilation volume, as do other teleosts. However, in tunas hypoxic bradycardia is not accompanied by equivalent increases, in stroke volume, and cardiac output falls as HR decreases. In both tuna species, oxygen consumption eventually must be maintained by drawing on substantial venous oxygen reserves. This occurs at a higher inhalant water PO₂ (between 130 and 90 mmHg) in skipjack tuna than in yellowfin tuna (between 90 and 50 mmHg). The need to draw on venous oxygen reserves would make it difficult to meet the oxygen demand of increasing swimming speed, which is a common response to hypoxia in both species. Because yellowfin tuna can maintain oxygen consumption at a seawater oxygen tension of 90 mmHg without drawing on venous oxygen reserves, they could probably survive for extended periods at this level of hypoxia.Abbreviations BP_da, BP_va dorsal, ventral aortic blood pressure - C _aO₂, C _vO₂ oxygen content of arterial, venous blood - DO₂ diffusion capacity - E_b, E_w effectiveness of O₂ uptake by blood, and from water, respectively - Hct hematocrit - HR heart rate - PCO₂ carbon dioxide tension - P _aCO₂, P _vCO₂ carbon dioxide tension of arterial and venous blood, respectively - PO₂ oxygen tension - P _aO₂, P _vO₂, P _iO₂, P _cO₂ oxygen tension of arterial blood, venous blood, and inspired and expired water, respectively - pHa, pHv pH of arterial and venous blood, respectively - P_w—b effective water to blood oxygen partial pressure difference - Pg partial pressure (tension) gradient - cardiac output - R vascular resistance - SV stroke volume - SEM standard error of mean - TO₂ transfer factor - U utilization - _g ventilation volume - O₂ oxygen consumption     

Aquatic surface respiration,a widespread adaptation to hypoxia in tropical freshwater fishes

Synopsis Use of the surface water for aquatic respiration (aquatic surface respiration, ASR) is one of the few alternatives to aerial respiration which allow fish to survive extreme hypoxia, yet it has received very little attention. This report examines three generalizations concerning ASR on a phylogenetically and geographically diverse range of tropical freshwater fishes. It demonstrates that ASR greatly enhances survival in hypoxic water, even in fish not morphologically specialized to use the surface film, that ASR is initiated at a distinct threshold oxygen concentration, with time spent at the surface increasing rapidly as O₂ declines, and that with extreme deoxygenation fish perform ASR over 90% of the time. Ninety-four percent of the 31 species of non-air breathing fish tested showed ASR., with the threshold oxygen concentration ranging from 6 to 40 torr.Present address correspondence and reprint requests to D.L. Kramer.     

Respiratory responses to temperature and hypoxia in the nonindigenous Brown Mussel, Perna perna (Bivalvia: Mytilidae), from the Gulf of Mexico

The respiratory responses to increasing temperature and progressive hypoxia were examined relative to temperature acclimation in the nonindigenous, brown mussel, Perna perna (Mytilidae) from the Gulf of Mexico. When oxygen uptake rate (V?_O2) was recorded at near full air O₂ saturation, rate-temperature curves for Texas specimens of P. perna were sigmoidal, V?_O2 generally increasing with increasing temperature but becoming suppressed as temperatures approached 10 and 30 °C, corresponding closely to this species' incipient thermal limits. At each tested temperature, V?_O2 did not differ among individuals acclimated to 15, 20, or 25 °C. Lack of thermal acclimation was also reflected in acclimatory Q₁₀ values>1.0 (range=1.34-2.14) recorded across acclimation groups at test temperatures equivalent to acclimation temperature. Low acute respiratory Q₁₀ values in all acclimation groups across 15-20 °C indicated a limited capacity for thermal regulation of V?_O2 within this temperature range. The ability of P. perna to regulate O₂ uptake with progressive hypoxia was temperature-dependent, increasing from poor O₂ regulation at 10 °C to good regulation at 30 °C. The O₂ regulatory ability of P. perna and other open-water mytilids in declining O₂ concentrations does not greatly differ from that of estuarine heterodont bivalves, suggesting that it is not a major factor preventing open-water species, such as P. perna, from invading estuarine environments. However, P. perna's inability to regulate O₂ uptake at temperatures>25 °C combined with its relatively low upper thermal limit of 30 °C will likely prevent it from establishing permanent estuarine populations on Gulf of Mexico shores.     

Fine structure of the pineal organ in the troglobytic fish,Typhlichthyes subterraneous (Pisces: Amblyopsidae)

Summary The pineal organ of the blind, cave-dwelling fish, Typhlichthyes subterraneous, was examined with both light and electron microscopes. Like the eyes, the pineal in this troglobytic species was found to be regressed. Two cell types, photoreceptor and supportive cells, were described in the pineal epithelium. Although ganglion cells were not identified, small, unmyelinated nerve fibers were present. The photoreceptor cells had degenerated outer segments. Accordingly, it was suggested that the pineal in this species is not likely to function in photoreception. However, the presence of well developed Golgi bodies, clear and dense-cored vesicles, variable amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum and glycogen particles indicated that both cell types are metabolically active and may play a role in secretion.     

The differential cardio-respiratory responses to ambient hypoxia and systemic hypoxaemia in the South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa

Lungfishes (Dipnoi) occupy an evolutionary transition between water and air breathing and possess well-developed lungs and reduced gills. The South American species, Lepidosiren paradoxa, is an obligate air-breather and has the lowest aquatic respiration of the three extant genera. To study the relative importance, location and modality of reflexogenic sites sensitive to oxygen in the generation of cardio-respiratory responses, we measured ventilatory responses to changes in ambient oxygen and to reductions in blood oxygen content. Animals were exposed to aquatic and aerial hypoxia, both separately and in combination. While aerial hypoxia elicited brisk ventilatory responses, aquatic hypoxia had no effect, indicating a primary role for internal rather than branchial receptors. Reducing haematocrit and blood oxygen content by approximately 50% did not affect ventilation during normoxia, showing that the specific modality of the internal oxygen sensitive chemoreceptors is blood PO(2) per se and not oxygen concentration. In light of previous studies, it appears that the heart rate responses and the changes in pulmonary ventilation during oxygen shortage are similar in lungfish and tetrapods. Furthermore, the modality of the oxygen receptors controlling these responses is similar to tetrapods. Because the cardio-respiratory responses and the modality of the oxygen receptors differ from typical water-breathing teleosts, it appears that many of the changes in the mechanisms exerting reflex control over cardio-respiratory functions occurred at an early stage in vertebrate evolution.     

Cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia in the African catfish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Clarias gariepinus</Emphasis> (Burchell 1822), an air-breathing fish

The African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, possesses a pair of suprabranchial chambers located in the dorsal-posterior part of the branchial cavity having extensions from the upper parts of the second and fourth gill arches, forming the arborescent organs. This structure is an air-breathing organ (ABO) and allows aerial breathing (AB). We evaluated its cardiorespiratory responses to aquatic hypoxia. To determine the mode of air-breathing (obligate or accessory), fish had the respiratory frequency (f _R) monitored and were subjected to normoxic water (PwO₂ = 140 mmHg) without becoming hyperactive for 30 h. During this period, all fish survived without displaying evidences of hyperactivity and maintained unchanged f _R, confirming that this species is a facultative air-breather. Its aquatic O₂ uptake ( [(V)\dot]\textO₂ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2} ) was maintained constant down to a critical PO₂ (PcO₂) of 60 mmHg, below which [(V)\dot]\textO₂ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2} declined linearly with further reductions of inspired O₂ tension (PiO₂). Just above the PcO₂ the ventilatory tidal volume (V _T) increased significantly along with gill ventilation ( [(V)\dot]_\textG \dot{V}_{\text{G}} ), while f _R changed little. Consequently, the water convection requirement ( [(V)\dot]_\textG /[(V)\dot]\textO₂ ) \left( {\dot{V}_{\text{G}} /\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2} } \right) increased steeply. This threshold applied to a cardiac response that included reflex bradycardia. AB was initiated at PiO₂ = 140 mmHg (normoxia) and air-breathing episodes increased linearly with more severe hypoxia, being significantly higher at PiO₂ tensions below the PcO₂. Air-breathing episodes were accompanied by bradycardia pre air-breath, to tachycardia post air-breath.     

Comparative ultrastructural investigations of the pineal organ of the blind cave fish,Anoptichthys jordani,and its ancestor,the eyed river fish,Astyanax mexicanus

A comparative ultrastructural study has been made of the pineal organ in specimens of two closely related populations of the characid fish, Astyanaz mexicanus. The specimens of one population are living in the river, under natural light conditions. The specimens of the other population, originally described as Anoptichthys jordani, are living in a completely dark cave. In specimens of both populations the pineal organ consists of a spindle shaped end-vesicle, connected to the diencephalic roof by a slender stalk. The pineal tissue is compact and consists predominantly of glia-like supporting cells and sensory cells resembling the photoreceptor cells of the lateral vertebrate eye. Phagocytotic microglia-like cells can be found in close contact with the outer segments of the sensory cells. Nerve cells are located in the neighbourhood of neuropil formations, in which synaptic contacts are established between sensory cells and nerve cells. From these nerve cells fibers are emerging, forming the pineal tract that runs down the pineal stalk towards the diencephalon. On the basis of the ultrastructure described by other authors it is concluded that the pineal organ in specimens of the river population of Astyanax mexicanus resembles the pineal organ of other fish species. In specimens of the river population, reared under normal light-dark conditions for 3, 9 or 18 months, conspicuous morphological changes have not been detected in the presumably light-sensitive outer segments of the sensory cells or in other parts of the pineal tissue. In specimens of the cave populations, reared under identical conditions, an age-dependent, gradual regression of the regular outer segment organization of the pineal sensory cells takes place. In other parts of the pineal tissue, only small morphological changes can be observed. In specimens of the cave population, reared in constant darkness, the regression of the pineal outer segment organization begins earlier and is obvious. It is postulated that the gradual age-dependent regression of the regular organization of the outer segments in the pineal organ of cave specimens of Astyanax mexicanus is genetically determined and indicates a regressive evolution of the pineal light sensitivity. The expression of the regressive traits is dependent on the environmental light conditions.     

Ultrastructure of Triangulamyxa amazonica n. gen. and n. sp. (Myxozoa, Myxosporea), a parasite of the Amazonian freshwater fish, Sphoeroides testudineus (Teleostei, Tetrodontidae)

Triangulamyxa amazonica n. gen. and n. sp. (Myxozoa, Ortholineidae), found in the lumen of the intestine of the freshwater fish Sphoeroides testudineus, is described. The fish were collected from the Amazon River near the city of Algodoal, State of the Pará, Brazil. Numerous irregular plasmodia containing different stages of sporogony, including spores, were observed. The plasmodia were lying free in the lumen or had slender pseudopodia-like cytoplasmic processes in contact with intestinal epithelial cells with microvilli projections. Spores, which are equilaterally triangular in valvar view with rounded pointed ends and ellipsoidal in transverse section, are 8.5 μm long, 7.6 μm wide, and 3.8 μm thick. The anterior end of the spores contains two equal drop-shaped polar capsules measuring 2.6 μm in length, each having an isofilar polar filament with 5–6 turns. The characteristics of the spore shape, the spore wall structure and its ridge organization, the plasmodial characteristics and the identity of the host suggest that the parasite is a new genus and species, which is herein designated T. amazonica.     

Functional differentiation in the anterior gills of the aquatic air-breathing fish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichogaster leeri</Emphasis>

The fish gill is a multifunctional organ responsible for gas exchange and ionic regulation. It is hypothesized that both morphological and functional differentiation can be found in the gills of the aquatic air-breathing fish, Trichogaster leeri. To test this, we used the air-breathing fish, Trichogaster leeri, to investigate various morphological/functional parameters. First, we evaluated the importance of performing the aquatic surface respiration behavior in T. leeri. A reduced survival rate was observed when fish were kept in the restrained cages in hypoxic conditions. On the gross anatomy of gills, we found evidence of both morphological and functional modification in the first and the second gills and are responsible for ionic regulation. There were large-bore arterioarterial shunts in the fourth gill arch. It is specialized for the transport of oxygenated blood and is less responsive to environmental stress. In addition, the anterior and the posterior gills differed in the Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity upon ionic stresses. That is, only the Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity of the anterior two gills was up-regulated significantly in the deionized water. Lastly, we found that the number of mitochondria-rich cells in the first and the second gills increased following ionic stress and no difference was found in the third and the fourth gills following such an exposure. These results supported the hypothesis that there are morphological and functional differences between anterior and posterior gill arches within the air-breathing Trichogaster leeri. In contrast, no significant difference was found among gills in gross anatomy, filament density and Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity in the non-air-breather, Barbodes schwanenfeldi.     

The respiratory chain of the facultative thermophile,Bacillus coagulans

Two oxidases were found to be present in membranes from the facultative thermophile Bacillus coagulans grown at 55°C, compared to one in cells grown at 37°C. Cytochrome spectra and inhibitors of the respiratory chain identified them as cytochrome oxidases aa ₃ and d. Both were present in membranes from 55°C grown cells, but only cytochrome oxidase aa ₃ was found in membranes from 37°C grown cells. The presence of cytochrome d in 55°C grown cultures was found to be due to decreased oxygen tension and not to the high growth temperature. This was confirmed by (a) induction of cytochrome d at 37°C under conditions of oxygen limitation and (b) its repression at 55°C under conditions of high aeration and its subsequent induction on lowering the dissolved oxygen concentration in chemostat cultures. Two cytochromes b (_max 558 and _max 562) were present in both 37°C and 55°C grown cells. Results from the inhibition of substrate oxidation by membranes suggested different pathways of electron transport by the respiratory chain.     

A tandemly repetitive centromeric DNA sequence of the fish Hoplias malabaricus (Characiformes: Erythrinidae) is derived from 5S rDNA

A substantial fraction of the eukaryotic genome consists of repetitive DNA sequences that include satellites, minisatellites, microsatellites, and transposable elements. Although extensively studied for the past three decades, the molecular forces that generate, propagate and maintain repetitive DNAs in the genomes are still discussed. To further understand the dynamics and the mechanisms of evolution of repetitive DNAs in vertebrate genome, we searched for repetitive sequences in the genome of the fish species Hoplias malabaricus. A satellite sequence, named 5SHindIII-DNA, which has a conspicuous similarity with 5S rRNA genes and spacers was identified. FISH experiments showed that the 5S rRNA bona fide gene repeats were clustered in the interstitial position of two chromosome pairs of H. malabaricus, while the satellite 5SHindIII-DNA sequences were clustered in the centromeric position in nine chromosome pairs of the species. The presence of the 5SHindIII-DNA sequences in the centromeres of several chromosomes indicates that this satellite family probably escaped from the selective pressure that maintains the structure and organization of the 5S rDNA repeats and become disperse into the genome. Although it is not feasible to explain how this sequence has been maintained in the centromeric regions, it is possible to hypothesize that it may be involved in some structural or functional role of the centromere organization.     

Early development of the flathead,Percophis brasiliensis (Teleostei: Percophididae), from Southeastern Brazil

Morphological and osteological development of the flathead,Percophis brasiliensis, is described based on specimens collected from southeastern Brazilian waters. Identification of larvae was based on pigment pattern and meristic counts. Distinct melanophores were present on the bottom of the hindbrain, between the bases of the pelvic fins and on the bases of the pectoral fins. Within the family Percophididae onlyPercophis brasiliensis has 57 myomeres, which result in the larvae having an elongated body form. The larval pigment pattern and structure of the caudal complex suggest that the subfamilies Percophinae and Bembropinae are phylogenetically close, while the Hemerocoetinae belong to an advanced group within the family.     

Morphology and vascular anatomy of the gills of a primitive air-breathing fish,the bowfin (Amia calva)

Summary The morphology of the gills of a primitive air breather (Amia calva) was examined by light microscopy of semithin sections of gill filaments, and gill perfusion pathways were identified by scanning-electron microscopic analysis of corrosion replicas prepared by intravascular injection of methyl methacrylate. The arrangement of gill filaments and respiratory lamellae is similar to that of teleosts with the exception of an interfilamental support bar that is fused to the outer margins of lamellae on adjacent filaments. The prebranchial vasculature is also similar to that of teleosts, whereas the postbranchial circulation of arches III and IV is modified to permit selective perfusion of the air bladder. Gill filaments contain three distinct vascular systems: (1) the respiratory circulation which receives the entire cardiac output and perfuses the secondary lamellae; (2) a nutrient system that arises from the postlamellar circulation and perfuses filamental tissues; (3) a network of unknown function consisting of subepithelial sinusoids surrounding afferent and efferent margins of the filament and traversing the filament beneath the interlamellar epithelium. Prelamellar arteriovenous anastomoses (AVAs) are rare, postlamellar AVAs are common especially at the base of the filament where they form a dense network of small tortuous vessels before coalescing into a large filamental nutrient artery. Unlike in most teleosts, the outer vascular margins of the lamellae are embedded in the interfilamental support bar and become the sole vasculature of this tissue. Arterial-arterial lamellar bypass vessels were not observed. Previously observed decreases in oxygen transfer across the gills during air breathing can be explained only by redistribution of blood flow between or within the respiratory lamellae.Supported by NSF Grant No. PCM 79-23073The author wishes to thank Miss K. Drajus and D. Kullman for their excellent technical assistance and Dr. W. Gingerich, Mr. J. Crowther and D. Zurn for help in obtaining bowfin     

Metabolic responses of fish larvae [Rutilus vutilus (L.)] to forced activity (Cyprinidae, Teleostei)

Larvae of Rutilus rutilus (L.) weighing approx. 40 mg were exercised for 5 min by mechanical stimulation. Individual larvae were taken before and immediately after stimulation, and during 2 h of recovery. The concentrations of glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvate, lactate, 2-oxoglutarate, and ascorbic acid were determined in individual larvae. The larvae recovered faster from forced activity than juvenile roach, recovery being complete after 1 h. Larvae also differed from juveniles in that metabolite levels increased less during activity. It is suggested that the combination of low glycolytic, and high oxidative capacity was responsible for the specific metabolic responses of the larvae.