昆虫夏滞育的调控及其遗传基础

几十年来对昆虫夏滞育的研究不断深入 ,阐明了不少昆虫夏滞育的生态机理。目前 ,探讨其内在的机制已成为研究的方向。该文着重论述夏滞育的生理生化特征、夏滞育的调控及其遗传基础     

35℃下烟青虫夏滞育率、蛹重及代谢速率的变化

【目的】本文旨在研究烟青虫Helicoverpa assulta在高温下的滞育的发生和生理的变化。【方法】高温可以诱导不同龄期的烟青虫进入夏滞育,本实验在35℃,L︰D=16︰8条件诱导3龄、4龄、6龄、预蛹期的烟青虫夏滞育,并比较研究了滞育蛹和非滞育蛹代谢水平的差异。【结果】研究结果发现,在35℃下,烟青虫的3龄、4龄、6龄幼虫与预蛹期的夏滞育率分别为25.96%、25.71%、22.76%、11.31%,3个幼虫期的滞育率显著高于预蛹期滞育率。不同龄期的滞育诱导中,雄性的夏滞育率都明显高于雌性夏滞育率。并且,滞育蛹显著比未滞育蛹重。对滞育蛹和未滞育蛹的失重动态与呼吸代谢速率比较研究,结果发现:夏滞育虫蛹的失重曲线平缓,显著低于未滞育蛹;并且呼吸代谢速率曲线平缓且显著低于未滞育蛹。【结论】研究表明,高温能诱导烟青虫能进入夏滞育,并且夏滞育蛹能通过维持低的代谢水平来度过不利环境,具有一定的生态适应意义。     

高温条件下棉铃虫化蛹率、夏滞育率和蛹重的变化

在预蛹期,高温处理能诱导棉铃虫蛹进入夏滞育。本实验着重就33～39℃的变温下滞育蛹和未滞育蛹的失重动态进行了对比研究,同时以常温（27℃）下蛹作为参照。研究发现： 在33～39℃的变温条件下,棉铃虫化蛹率显著低于其在常温下的化蛹率,且所化蛹中有63.2%的雄性和10.9%的雌性进入高温夏滞育,其中高温滞育蛹和未滞育蛹分别都轻于正常发育蛹。化蛹后第2日至第5日期间,高温滞育蛹失重量显著低于高温未滞育蛹和正常发育蛹的失重量,分别为3.62、13.30和5.49 mg;蛹期总失重量结果与化蛹后第2～5日间蛹失重量趋势一致,高温滞育蛹、未滞育蛹和正常发育蛹失重量分别为15.60、49.35和26.30 mg。蛹失重动态研究发现高温滞育蛹在夏滞育期间其失重曲线平缓,显著低于高温未滞育蛹和正常发育蛹;高温滞育蛹滞育解除后,其失重曲线与正常发育蛹的失重趋势基本一致。结果表明,棉铃虫夏滞育蛹能通过维持低的代谢水平来度过不利环境,具有一定的生态适应意义。     

葱蝇非滞育、 冬滞育和夏滞育蛹发育和形态特征比较

昆虫非滞育、 冬滞育和夏滞育蛹具有不同的生理和发育过程。本研究以葱蝇Delia antiqua作为模式种, 以黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster蛹的发育形态特征和命名为参照, 用解剖、 拍照、 长度测量和图像处理等方法系统地比较研究了非滞育、 冬滞育和夏滞育蛹的发育历期和形态变化, 重点在头外翻和滞育相关发育和形态特征, 目的在于弄清非滞育、 冬滞育和夏滞育蛹发育和形态特征差异, 为滞育发育阶段的识别、 滞育分子机理研究奠定形态学基础。冬滞育蛹的滞育前期、 滞育期和滞育后期分别为4, 85和27 d, 夏滞育蛹的滞育前期、 滞育期和滞育后期分别为2, 8和22 d。从化蛹至头外翻完成为滞育前期, 头外翻完成约10 h内复眼中央游离脂肪体可见。头外翻的完成是滞育发生的前提, 非滞育、 夏滞育和冬滞育蛹头外翻发生在化蛹后的48, 36和83 h, 在头外翻过程中发育形态没有差异。头外翻的过程为： 首先, 头囊和胸部附肢从胸腔外翻, 头部形态出现; 然后, 腹部肌肉继续收缩, 将血淋巴和脂肪体推进头部及胸部附肢。葱蝇蛹在完成蛹期有效积温约15%时进入冬滞育或夏滞育。在滞育期, 蛹的形态一直停留在复眼中央游离脂肪体可见这一形态时期, 且冬滞育和夏滞育的蛹在形态上没有区别。在体长、 体宽和体重上, 冬滞育蛹最大, 夏滞育蛹次之, 非滞育蛹最小。在滞育后期, 在黄色体出现期间, 非滞育蛹的马氏管清楚可见, 呈绿色, 而滞育蛹的马氏管几乎不可见。本研究为认知昆虫滞育生理、 从发育历期和形态上推断滞育发育进程提供了依据。     

葱蝇非滞育、夏滞育和冬滞育蛹体内抗氧化酶活性的比较分析（英文）

【目的】通过测定并比较分析抗氧化酶活性及谷胱甘肽氧化还原状态,探讨葱蝇Delia antiqua非滞育、夏滞育和冬滞育蛹体内抗氧化系统的差异。【方法】取葱蝇非滞育、夏滞育和冬滞育蛹,分别测定铜锌超氧化物歧化酶(Cu/Zn-SOD)、锰超氧化物歧化酶(Mn SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GPx)和谷胱甘肽还原酶(GR)活性及还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)和氧化性还原型谷胱甘肽(GSSG)含量及GSH/GSSG比随发育时间的变化;并对各抗氧化因子进行了典型判别分析。【结果】5种抗氧化酶的活性在整个蛹期是动态变化的。与非滞育蛹和夏滞育蛹相比,处于滞育前期的冬滞育蛹具有较高的Cu/Zn-SOD酶活性,但处于夏滞育及冬滞育的维持期和滞育后期的滞育蛹体内Cu/Zn-SOD酶活性则明显低于同一发育时期的非滞育蛹。在整个蛹期,非滞育蛹体内Mn SOD酶活性显著高于夏滞育和冬滞育蛹,而在夏滞育和冬滞育蛹之间则无明显差异。比较两种酶活性则发现同一发育时期的Mn SOD平均酶活性明显高于Cu/Zn-SOD酶活性。在头外翻之前,滞育蛹体内CAT酶活性高于非滞育蛹,但处于滞育维持期和后期的蛹体内CAT酶活性则低于非滞育蛹。无论在非滞育蛹还是滞育蛹中,GPx和GR酶活性变化基本上呈相反的趋势。典型判别分析进一步表明葱蝇蛹体内的抗氧化系统具有发育时期和滞育类型特异性。【结论】非滞育蛹与夏滞育和冬滞育蛹体内的氧化还原状态存在明显差异。滞育前期和滞育后期的蛹体内较高的抗氧化酶活性和较低的GSH/GSSG比提示氧化状态的变化与高的呼吸速率及发育过程密切相关。     

大猿叶虫夏滞育的诱导：基于定量的光周期反应

为了探明大猿叶虫Colaphellus bowringi Baly夏滞育诱导的光周期时间测量特性, 我们通过室内实验系统比较了该虫在25℃、 不同长光照条件下,夏滞育的发生以及诱导50%个体进入夏滞育所需求的光 暗循环数。结果表明：不同长光照诱导的夏滞育比率有显著差异, 其中15 h或16 h光照诱导的滞育比率最高, 短于或长于这两个光照其滞育率均明显下降。在不同光 暗循环实验中, 14 h诱导的滞育比率均低于50%, 诱导50%个体进入夏滞育所需求的光 暗循环数在L15∶D9, L16∶D8, L17∶ D7和L18∶D6分别为2.61, 3.72, 4.64和5.92 d, 处理间存在显著差异。这些结果提示该虫夏滞育的诱导是基于定量的光周期反应。     

葱蝇非滞育与夏滞育蛹蛋白的双向凝胶电泳比较分析

【目的】比较分析葱蝇Delia antiqua非滞育与夏滞育蛹的蛋白表达差异, 为进一步揭示昆虫滞育的分子调控机理和昆虫防治提供理论基础。【方法】以非滞育和夏滞育的蛹为材料, 提取总蛋白; 进行双向凝胶电泳和凝胶图像分析, 对并差异蛋白质进行MALDI-TOF MS质谱鉴定, 获得该点的质量指纹图谱; 利用MASCOT软件在NCBI和SWISS PORT蛋白质数据库中进行搜索鉴定。【结果】非滞育和夏滞育蛹的蛋白表达存在显著差异。通过质谱鉴定和生物信息学分析, 13个差异表达的蛋白质分别为胶原蛋白、 纺锤丝组装非正常蛋白6(SAS6)、 5,10-亚甲基四氢叶酸合成酶(MTHFS)、 Bnb蛋白(bangles and beads)及其他功能未知蛋白。【结论】葱蝇在夏滞育时期, 蛹体内的某些蛋白被上调或下调表达。本研究所鉴定的蛋白中, 部分可能是参与滞育相关的蛋白质网络中的成员, 它们可能在抗高温、 染色体分离、 叶酸代谢等生理过程中发挥重要作用。     

基于转录组和基因表达谱的葱蝇分泌组挖掘及其在滞育发育中的可能作用分析（英文）

【目的】昆虫滞育是一种重要的季节性适应生存的环境生理现象,但是调控葱蝇Delia antiqua夏滞育和冬滞育的分子机理却知之甚少。本研究旨在鉴定与葱蝇蛹滞育相关的候选基因。【方法】利用RNA-seq和数字基因表达谱数据,通过生物信息学的方法预测分析葱蝇滞育相关的分泌蛋白,并进行了氨基酸序列相似性、基本理化性质分析;从表达谱中选取12个差异表达基因,利用qRT-PCR验证了它们在非滞育蛹以及夏滞育和冬滞育蛹的不同发育时期的表达特点。【结果】共鉴定出38个在葱蝇夏滞育蛹和冬滞育蛹之间差异表达的可能的分泌蛋白。同源基因注释表明,这些基因可能在气味分子结合、几丁质和脂类代谢、免疫及发育等方面发挥作用,其中脂类和几丁质代谢过程的调节似乎在滞育发育过程起到重要作用。qRT-PCR分析结果表明,12个被选择基因的表达谱与RNA-seq结果相吻合(R=0.862,P=0.001)。【结论】本研究为基于高通量测序的分泌组挖掘及滞育相关基因的鉴定提供了强有力地分析策略。     

葱蝇热激蛋白DaHSP23基因的克隆及在冬滞育和夏滞育蛹中的表达分析

[目的]低分子量(12 ～43 kDa)热激蛋白(sHSPs)具有抗逆应答的功能,滞育是昆虫抵抗不良环境的特殊发育形式,但sHSPs在昆虫滞育发育过程中的作用仍不清楚.本研究克隆和特征化葱蝇Delia antiqua sHSP基因,并研究它在夏滞育和冬滞育发育过程中的表达模式,为阐明sHSPs在滞育发育上的功能奠定基础.[方法]通过RACE-PCR方法克隆了葱蝇HSP23基因,通过相似性比较分析了其特征、结构域及与双翅目代表性同源基因的系统发育关系;采用实时荧光定量PCR研究了该基因在葱蝇冬滞育蛹和夏滞育蛹发育过程中的表达情况,通过表达的差异比较揭示了该基因与滞育发育的关系.[结果]克隆出了葱蝇HSP23基因,命名为DaHSP23(GenBank登录号:HQ392521.1),其cDNA全长序列为904 bp,编码186个氨基酸,推测蛋白分子量为20.9 kDa,等电点为6.42.该基因的编码蛋白与其他双翅目昆虫的sHSPs有超过66％的氨基酸序列一致性,与已报道的其他双翅目昆虫的滞育相关HSP23基因同源.基因组测序显示该基因无内含子.DaHSP23基因在葱蝇非滞育蛹的发育过程中一直保持在较低的水平,各发育阶段间的表达量不存在显著差异.但在冬滞育和夏滞育蛹中,该基因从滞育起始期开始逐渐显著升高表达,到滞育维持期的中后期达到峰值,在滞育终止期逐渐降到较低的水平.[结论]DaHSP23基因在葱蝇冬滞育和夏滞育发育过程中明显上调表达,但存在差异,它在滞育期的调控可能是种专化的.DaHSP23可能在葱蝇两种类型的滞育上起重要作用.     

葱蝇夏滞育蛹体内DaFOXO1对超氧化物歧化酶基因表达及蛹发育历期的调控作用(英文)

【目的】本研究旨在调查葱蝇Delia antiqua夏滞育蛹体内DaFOXO1对超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)基因表达及蛹发育历期的调控作用。【方法】从葱蝇转录组数据中鉴定DaFOXO1下游铜锌超氧化物歧化酶基因DaCu/Zn SOD和锰超氧化物歧化酶基因DaMn SOD;利用生物信息学工具对DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD的氨基酸序列特征、亚细胞定位和系统发育关系进行分析。通过qRT-PCR方法分析DaFOXO1, DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD基因在葱蝇夏滞育蛹不同发育阶段的表达特点;进一步分析DaFOXO1基因被干扰后,葱蝇夏滞育蛹中DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD基因的表达特点、酶活性变化及对葱蝇夏滞育蛹发育历期的影响。【结果】鉴定到的葱蝇DaCu/Zn SOD(GenBank登录号: KR072551)的开放阅读框长459 bp,编码153个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量为22.4 kD,等电点为6.44,属于细胞质型铜锌超氧化歧化酶;DaMn SOD(GenBank登录号: KR072549)的开放阅读框长648 bp,编码216个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量为24.4 kD,等电点为8.85,属于线粒体型锰超氧化物歧化酶。氨基酸序列比对结果显示,DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD与其他10种双翅目昆虫的同源蛋白有75%~94%的氨基酸序列一致性,且具有典型的SOD家族序列特征;系统发育分析显示它们与铜绿蝇Lucilia cuprina同源蛋白形成高支持率的一支。qRT-PCR分析表明,DaFOXO1基因在滞育前期和滞育后期的表达量较高,而在滞育期的表达量低; DaCu/Zn SOD基因在滞育期和滞育后期呈高表达;但DaMn SOD基因在滞育前期和滞育期的表达量最高,在滞育后期次之。干扰DaFOXO1可显著抑制DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD的基因表达及相应酶活性,并能明显延长夏滞育蛹的滞育期。【结论】结果说明,DaCu/Zn SOD和DaMn SOD是FOXO1信号网络中的重要成员;DaFOXO1对葱蝇夏滞育蛹蛹期有重要调控作用。     

Effects of diapause on post‐diapause reproductive investment in the moth Ostrinia scapulalis

Diapause is a strategy used by many insect species to survive adverse environmental conditions. However, diapause incurs costs that may have adverse effects on post‐diapause development and reproduction. We herein investigated the effects of diapause on the post‐diapause reproductive investment of males and females in a multivoltine moth, the adzuki bean borer, Ostrinia scapulalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). We found that (1) post‐diapause males and females were smaller and had lower mating success than non‐diapause individuals, (2) post‐diapause females had lower fecundity and shorter longevity than non‐diapause females, (3) post‐diapause males transferred similar numbers of eupyrene and apyrene sperm as non‐diapause males, (4) the fecundity and longevity of non‐diapause females mated with post‐diapause males and those mated with non‐diapause males were not significantly different, and (5) no significant relationship was found between diapause duration (short and long) and post‐diapause reproductive investments in both males and females. These results suggest that post‐diapause males did not reduce reproductive investment in spite of the cost of diapause, and the significant decline in reproductive output in post‐diapause females was due to their reduced body weight and longevity, which appeared to be direct consequences of the cost of diapause.     

On the factors inducing the inhibition of diapause in the progeny of diapause females of Trichogramma telengai

The ability to enter diapause in the progeny of Trichogramma Westw. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) females that have undergone diapause is markedly reduced or even completely absent. This maternal inhibition of diapause can result from three types of factors: (i) environmental factors that induce maternal diapause; (ii) maternal diapause itself; and (iii) diapause‐terminating environmental factors. The present study aims to determine the factors that prevent diapause in the progeny of a Trichogramma telengai Sor. generation that has undergone diapause. Different tendencies to enter diapause in the maternal generation are induced by different photoperiods (LD 12 : 12 h, 16 : 8 h and 18 : 6 h) during development of the grandmaternal generation and different temperatures (from 10 to 15 °C) during larval development of the maternal generation. To terminate diapause, prepupae of the maternal generation are kept at 4–5 °C in the dark. To estimate the ability to enter diapause, the progeny generation is incubated at 14 °C. The results suggest that the inhibition of the tendency to enter diapause in the progeny of T. telengai females that have undergone diapause is caused by diapause itself rather than by diapause‐inducing or diapause‐terminating environmental factors. This result can be used to clarify the mechanism of the inhibition of diapause in the progeny of females that have undergone diapause.     

光温条件明显影响棉铃虫的滞育强度

为了探明不同地理种群棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera滞育强度的地理变异, 本研究系统地比较了光温条件（光照时数 11～16 h, 恒温20, 22, 25, 28和31℃及变温）对来自中国的4个地理种群（广东广州、 江西永修、 山东泰安和辽宁喀佐）棉铃虫滞育强度的影响。结果表明： 滞育诱导的光周期对继后棉铃虫的滞育强度有明显影响。在光照时数11～14 h范围内, 各地理种群的滞育持续期均随着光照时数的增加而延长。滞育强度也受到滞育诱导的温周期影响, 当光期温度相同时, 低纬度的GZ种群温周期比恒温有更强的诱导效应; 中纬度的YX种群温周期与恒温具有相同的滞育诱导强度; 高纬度的KZ和TA种群温周期所诱导的滞育强度一般低于恒温。滞育解除过程中的温度也显著影响到滞育的解除, 在20~31℃下, 温度愈高滞育解除愈快; 滞育持续期同时受到滞育诱导温度的影响, 对于北方的泰安种群和喀佐种群, 较高的滞育诱导温度能诱导更强的滞育。     

Variation in diapause potential and strength in eggs of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Samples of eggs of Chortoicetes terminifera were incubated under 3 temperature regimes which would allow non-diapause eggs to develop about 50% and so take them beyond the diapause stage. Even so, many more eggs entered diapause when reared at 20°C for 3 weeks than at 32°C for 1 week. By collecting and incubating eggs at intervals after laying in autumn, diapause potential or strength of eggs at different stages of development was estimated. For eggs in pre-diapause, the proportion in diapause after rearing was used to estimate diapause “potential”; for those in diapause, the proportion was used to estimate diapause “strength”. At laying, eggs varied greatly in their potential to enter diapause. However, those with lower potential at laying often increased their potential during the pre-diapause stage so that by the time diapause was reached diapause strength varied but over a lesser range. In all eggbeds, diapause strength decreased by 7–9 weeks after laying; little or none remained by mid-winter.These variations in diapause potential and diapause strength seem to reflect how much the temperature threshold for development during diapause is increased above that for non-diapause. Both diapause potential and strength may reflect the value of some factor whose level at laying is determined by the environment experienced by the parents but which changes subsequently.     

马尾松毛虫越冬代滞育与非滞育幼虫过冷却点的研究

测定了在恒温和自然温度处理下饲养的马尾松毛虫滞育与非滞育幼虫的过冷却点。结果表明 ,2 7℃恒温饲养的滞育幼虫的平均过冷却点较非滞育幼虫的平均过冷却点低 ,但无显著差异 ;而自然温度下饲养的滞育幼虫的过冷却点较非滞育的过冷却点也低 ,然而 ,滞育开始时差异不显著 ,之后差异显著。相应滞育状态下 ,自然温度下饲喂的幼虫较 2 7℃恒温下饲喂的平均过冷却点低 ,但在滞育开始阶段和结束阶段两者之间的差异显著。自然温度下滞育和非滞育幼虫的抗寒能力都随气温的降低而增强 ,而 2 7℃下滞育与非滞育幼虫的抗寒能力均出现先增后减的趋势     

Diapause incidence of progeny in relation to parental geographic origin,host plant and rearing density in the cabbage beetle,Colaphellus bowringi

The cabbage beetle, Colaphellus bowringi Baly (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), which is widely distributed in China, undergoes an imaginal diapause in the soil. In this study, we investigated the influences of parental geographic origin, host plant, and rearing density on the diapause incidence of progeny in this beetle. In studies conducted at 25 °C and L12:D12 photoperiod, the proportions of adults entering diapause were significantly different among latitudes from which the parents had been collected. The incidence of diapause increased with increasing latitude. Reciprocal cross tests between post‐diapause adults from different latitudes showed that there were significant differences in diapause incidence between pure‐bred and hybrid adults, suggesting that diapause incidence among progeny was determined by both the female and male, although the female appeared to have a stronger effect than the male. These results revealed that parental origin has an important influence on progeny diapause. Parental host plant species not only affected diapause incidence of the current generation, but also affected the incidence of diapause in the progeny produced by the non‐diapause parents; yet, the parental host plant had no influence on the incidence of diapause in the progeny produced by the post‐diapause parents. Rearing density of the parental generation had no significant effect on the incidence of diapause in the progeny.     

Juvenile hormone regulation of the larval diapause of the Southwestern corn borer,Diatraea grandiosella

The hormonal mechanism which controls the larval diapause of the southwestern corn borer was examined. The onset of this facultative mature larval diapause is marked by a transition from a spotted to an immaculate larval form, and during diapause individuals may undergo one or more stationary larval ecdyses. Experiments were designed to uncover the nature of the humoral mechanism regulating this diapause state. The finding that injecting diapause larvae with 20-hydroxyecdysone only brought about a stationary larval ecdysis suggests that diapause was not maintained by the lack of ecdysone. Neck ligations performed on larvae which had just entered diapause resulted in a premature termination of diapause, and larval-pupal ecdysis occurred in the thoraco-abdominal section, suggesting that a cephalic factor was necessary for the maintenance of diapause. This finding was further supported by the discovery that injecting 20-hydroxyecdysone into the thoraco-abdominal section of previously ligated diapause larvae also resulted in a premature termination of diapause and larval-pupal ecdysis, indicating that ecdysone only initiated the pupal moulting cycle when the cephalic factor was absent.Further experiments led to the conclusion that the juvenile hormone is the cephalic factor. Topical treatment with a juvenile hormone mimic caused non-diapause mature larvae to become immaculate and enter diapause. Periodical topical application of this mimic to diapause larvae prolonged diapause and increased the number of stationary larval ecdyses. These findings suggest that the initiation and maintenance of diapause are regulated by juvenile hormone titre. Results indicate that larvae retain a high titre of juvenile hormone until the last stages of diapause. Injection of 20-hydroxyecdysone into early or middiapause larvae only caused stationary larval ecdyses, while the same injection into larvae in the late stages of diapause caused some of them to pupate. Histological studies of the neurosecretory cells, corpus cardiacum-allatum complex, and prothoracic glands showed that the endocrine system was not inactive during diapause. A new hypothesis is therefore proposed which recognizes the existence of hormonal activity during larval diapause and emphasizes the principal regulatory rôle of juvenile hormone.     

Effects of putrescine on diapause induction and intensity,and post‐diapause development of Helicoverpa armigera

Effects of putrescine on diapause induction and intensity, and post‐diapause development in Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from Wuhan, Hubei, China were studied in the laboratory at different temperatures and photoperiod conditions. The results showed a generally higher incidence of diapause in putrescine‐feeding groups. Putrescine feeding distinctly restricted the development of non‐diapause‐destined and diapause‐destined larvae, except at 0.01% putrescine concentration, which accelerated the development of larvae at 21 °C. Putrescine had no significant effect on the duration of diapause, although it inhibited the post‐diapause development of pupae. Photoperiod played a different role in diapause induction and post‐diapause development between 21 and 23 °C. Putrescine played a definite role in diapause induction and intensity, and post‐diapause development in H. armigera, and a significant interaction between putrescine, photophase, and temperature is to be expected.     

Environmental Cues, Endocrine Factors, and Reproductive Diapause in Male Insects

Environmental cues, mostly photoperiod and temperature, mediated by effects on the neuroendocrine system, control reproductive diapause in female insects. Arrest of oocyte development characterizes female reproductive diapause, which has two major adaptive functions: It improves chances of survival during unfavorable season(s), and/or it confines oviposition to that period of the year that is optimal for survival of the eggs and progeny. Although reproductive diapause is less well studied in male insects, there may be no sex-dependent differences in regard to the first of these functions. The second one, however, is not valid for the male; instead, selection pressure directs the male's reproductive strategy toward maximum chances of fertilization of the female's eggs with minimum waste of energy. Therefore, in species with female reproductive diapause, the males may or may not exhibit diapause, but if they do, their diapause must be adapted to that existing in conspecific females. Male reproductive diapause is defined as a reversible state of inability of the male to inseminate receptive females. In relation to reproductive diapause, there are several patterns of coadaptations between male reproductive strategy and timing of female receptivity, (a) In some insects, the females are receptive in the early part of their diapause; mating occurs during this period and there is no diapause in the male. The male dies shortly after copulation and the female stores the sperms to fertilize the eggs that develop after termination of the female's diapause, (b) In some species, as in the grasshopper Anacridium aegyptium, females are receptive during diapause; though oocyte development is arrested, copulation occurs and the stored sperms fertilize the eggs when the female's diapause ends. Males were claimed to have no diapause, but recent studies have revealed the presence of a reproductive diapause in a proportion of the males. This and other cases show that female receptivity during reproductive diapause may or may not be accompanied by male reproductive diapause. If there is a reproductive diapause in the male, it is controlled by the same endocrine mechanism, the corpora allata (CA), as in the females, (c) In many species females are refractory during their diapause. In these cases, males exhibit reproductive diapause, which may be light, as in the beetle Oulema melanopus, or well established, as in certain grasshoppers, butterflies, and beetles. In the latter cases, male diapause is controlled by similar environmental cues (photoperiod, temperature) and by the same intrinsic mechanism (neuroendocrine system, especially CA) as female diapause. Nevertheless, male diapause is less intense; the environmental cues leading to its termination are less complex and/or less extreme, so male diapause terminates before that of the females. Presumably, male diapause is under two antagonistic selection pressures: A male should not waste energy by courting dia-pausing refractory females, but he should be ready to copulate as soon as the females become receptive, otherwise he may lose in the competition between males for females. Some further strategies, which do not seem to fit the above patterns, are also outlined.