多叶斑叶兰繁育系统与传粉生物学研究

为探讨多叶斑叶兰(Goodyera folisa)的繁育系统与传粉生物学特征,对其开花物候、花粉活力与柱头可授性、人工授粉、花的挥发性成分以及昆虫传粉行为进行了研究。结果表明,多叶斑叶兰的唇瓣黄色,萼片白色或白色带红褐色;单花花期为(9.4±0.8)d;花粉在开花后第1天具备活力,柱头在开花后第2天具备可授性,花粉活力和柱头可授性都在开花后第5天达到峰值。去雄套袋和不去雄套袋都不能结实,人工自花授粉、同株异花授粉和异株异花授粉的结实率分别为93.3%、95.0%和96.7%,自然结实率为43.3%。花朵的主要挥发性成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、3-辛醇和N,N-二甲基甲酰胺。多叶斑叶兰传粉者为中华蜜蜂(Apis cerana)。多叶斑叶兰具有自交亲和能力,但在自然界不具有主动自交现象,必须依赖中华蜜蜂传粉,花色及花香气味为吸引传粉者的主要因素。     

兔耳兰食源性欺骗传粉的研究

兰科植物具有精巧、多样化的花部结构以及高度多样的吸引传粉者方式。作者对广西雅长兰科植物自治区级保护区内的一个兔耳兰(Cymbidium lancifolium)居群进行了连续2年的观察和研究。观察发现兔耳兰唯一的传粉者为膜翅目蜜蜂科的中华蜜蜂(Apis cerana cerana)。中华蜜蜂一般直接落在唇瓣外弯的中裂片上, 然后调整身体的方向, 进入花中, 当发现花中无蜜液等回报时, 借助于后足的蹬力退出花朵。在退出的过程中, 花粉块连同药帽会通过粘盘粘附在中华蜜蜂的胸部。中华蜜蜂在花内的停留时间为8–71 s, 平均18.3 s (N = 11)。根据观察我们推测兔耳兰可能是通过其唇瓣上无规则的紫栗色小斑点(假蜜导)来吸引中华蜜蜂为其传粉, 属于食源性欺骗方式。在传粉过程中兔耳兰的药帽与花粉团和粘盘一起粘在中华蜜蜂背部。药帽的存在能够阻止下一朵被拜访的花实现雌性功能。兔耳兰药帽高度(0.154 ± 0.032 cm) (N = 10)加上传粉昆虫胸高(2005年为0.37 ± 0.03 cm (N = 10), 2006年0.35 ± 0.04 cm (N = 7))大于传粉通道入口的高度(0.29 ± 0.04 cm) (N = 21), 支持兔耳兰可能通过药帽来减少同株异花授粉现象的推测。2005和2006年该兔耳兰居群的自然繁殖成功率分别为21.13%和21.28%。繁育系统实验证明兔耳兰是高度自交亲和物种, 自交和异交的繁殖成功率没有显著性差异, 表明该种在结实过程中未显示近交衰退。兔耳兰不存在无融合生殖和自花授粉的现象, 其结实依赖传粉者。TTC法检测结果显示兔耳兰种子活力达85.78%(N = 11), 可见种子活力不是制约兔耳兰种子萌发的主要原因。因此传粉者的密度和访问频率可能是影响兔耳兰结实的重要因素, 并最终影响兔耳兰种群的维持和扩张。     

传粉对杭州石荠苎（唇形科）结实的影响

杭州石荠苎（ＭｏｓｌａｈａｎｇｃｈｏｕｅｎｓｉｓＭａｔｓｕｄａ）自交亲和,人工自花授粉,同株异花授粉和异花授粉的结实没有明显差异。杭州自然居中新开花朵的调查没有发现闭花传粉现象。原因是花药和柱头之间存在空间隔离和发育上的时间隔离。这些隔离使昆虫花粉传播的必要媒介,结实从而取决于传粉昆虫的活动。     

多花兰传粉生物学研究

传粉是植物繁殖和进化的一个关键环节, 为探讨中国产多花兰(Cymbidium floribundum)的传粉生物学特性, 对其开花物候、繁育系统、花的挥发性成分、传粉昆虫行为学实验进行了研究。结果表明, 多花兰不存在自动自交和无融合生殖, 种子的形成有赖于传粉媒介。其自然结实率远低于人工授粉, 存在严重的传粉限制。中华蜜蜂(Apis cerana)为多花兰的有效传粉昆虫, 但未能从中获得报酬, 在传粉过程中将花粉块连药帽一起带出。通过昆虫的行为学实验发现, 多花兰气味对中华蜜蜂具有显著性吸引作用, 而颜色对中华蜜蜂无显著性吸引作用。花朵的主要挥发性成分为醛类与醇类物质, 一天之中在种类和量上几乎没有变化, 只有芳樟醇含量的变化与传粉昆虫活动频率相关。本研究可为兰多花兰的野生保护和杂交育种提供一定依据。     

春兰(兰科)传粉生物学的研究

为探讨兰属Cymbidium建兰亚属subgen.Jensoa植物与传粉者之间的关系,对湖南省西南部野生春兰Cymbidiumgoeringii的传粉生物学进行了研究.结果表明春兰花期近40天,多数花(60%左右)在30天内开放.春兰的花开放与气温有直接的关系,当温度明显升高时,春兰的花会大量开放;春兰的花唇瓣3裂,中裂片强烈外弯成90°至180°不等,且少数花的中裂片上有紫褐色斑点;花能够散发出浓郁的香气,距离花1m左右就可以闻到香气.春兰唯一的传粉者为中华蜜蜂Apis cerana cerana,主要在晴天1000-1700气温较高的时间段活动.中华蜜蜂访花时,直接落在唇盘上,后腿蹬在唇瓣中裂片上.头部直接进入花内.当中华蜜蜂头部接近合蕊柱基部时便不能继续进入,开始挣扎退出.退出过程中有时中胸会随着挣扎而拱起,接触到合蕊柱上部,蹭到粘盘(viscidium).当中华蜜蜂中胸背部蹭到粘盘后,花粉块连同药帽就粘到蜜蜂的背部被一起带出.中华蜜蜂访花后,如果没有带出花粉块,则继续访花或者飞离居群;访花后若带出花粉块,则会立即飞离该居群.黑颚条蜂Anthophora melanognatha只是春兰的访问者.春兰不会为传粉者提供花蜜、花粉等报酬,也没有模仿同期开花植物花的形态特征,因而可能是通过其强烈的香味来吸引传粉者.自然条件下,春兰的结实率仅为6.67%.人工异花授粉、自花授粉、同克隆内授粉的结实率分别为100%、90%和100%,表明春兰是高度自交亲和的.而套袋后不采取措施、去雄的花均不结实,表明春兰不存在自动的自花授粉、无融合生殖,因而,春兰必须通过一定的媒介传粉才能繁衍后代.     

山莨菪(茄科)的传粉生物学

茄科的多数种类具有自交不亲和的特点, 主要通过异花传粉结实; 但是, 一些物种或者物种内的部分种群或者个体却高度自交亲合, 转变为自交的繁育系统。该科植物山莨菪(Anisodus tanguticus)主要分布在青藏高原, 开花较早, 比其他晚开花的植物种类更加缺少有效的异花传粉昆虫。我们选择了位于不同海拔高度的2个种群进行比较研究, 主要目的是检验该物种的繁育系统是否在极端环境下由于传粉者的缺乏而发生了部分改变。研究发现,山莨菪的花不完全雌性先熟, 柱头和花药间的平均距离随着花开放时间的延长而不断缩小, 但两者在多数花的单花花期结束时并没有发生接触。因此, 山莨菪花主要表现为适应异花传粉的雌雄异位特征。然而, 少数花 (4.9％)的柱头和花药发生接触, 为“自动自交”的传粉解除了空间隔离。2个种群的多数个体存在自交不亲和机制, 应具有异花传粉的繁育系统; 但是部分个体具有明显的自交亲和能力, 为自交提供了生理基础。高海拔种群的传粉昆虫主要是厕蝇(Fannia sp.), 它们在不同植株间的活动能够保证异花传粉结实; 同时该种群的部分个体存在“自动自交”。低海拔种群的主要访花昆虫是蚂蚁, 它们在花内的活动导致花粉在同一朵花内传递, 而引起“协助自交”; 而异花传粉昆虫厕蝇的访花频率则较高海拔种群低。两个种群的结实均由于异花传粉者不足而受到传粉限制。因此两种不同类型的自交机制为该早期开花植物异花访花昆虫的不足提供了一定程度上的繁殖补偿。     

濒危植物独花兰的传粉生物学初步观察

独花兰(Changnienia amoena Chien)为我国特有的单种属植物,近年因生境破碎化和过度采挖,其野生资源日渐减少.迄今对独花兰极为有限的研究表明,其结实率很低或根本不结实,其传粉媒介也一直未被发现.2002年3～4月,我们对神农架2个移植居群和5个天然居群进行了传粉生物学的定点观察,发现雌性三条熊蜂(Bombus(Diversobombus)trifasciatus Smith)、仿熊蜂(Bombus(Tricornibombus)imitator Pittion)和蜜蜂均访问独花兰,但只有三条熊蜂身体粘有花粉块,是独花兰的有效传粉者.三条熊蜂的访问频率很低,在113 h的观察中只有9次访问,但在一个天然居群(population 3)中曾观察到一天4次的最高访问频率;访问主要在12:00～15:00出现,但在花上停留时间很短,不超过10 s.在未被授粉的情况下,独花兰花朵大约3周后自然枯萎,但受粉后3、4 d内即出现一系列形态和颜色的变化,包括花梗逐渐伸长,子房在花梗逐渐停止伸长后开始膨大等,表明花梗伸长可作为结实(授粉成功)的指标.人工授粉实验表明,自花、异花受粉后花梗均伸长,而套袋隔离花的则花梗不伸长,说明独花?兰是自交亲和的异交种,需要昆虫传粉.根据传粉者的访问频率、居群中果实的分布,尤其是花距内无花蜜等特征,我们认为独花兰是种欺骗性传粉的兰花.相对于其他欺骗性传粉的兰花,独花兰的自然结实率并不很低(26.98%),这与居群规模小会提高欺骗性传粉兰花结实率这一观点吻合.花粉块的输出数远高于结实数,这说明独花兰存在一定的花粉浪费.     

濒危植物独花兰的传粉生物学初步观察

独花兰(Changnienia amoena Chien)为我国特有的单种属植物,近年因生境破碎化和过度采挖,其野生资源日渐减少。迄今对独花兰极为有限的研究表明,其结实率很低或根本不结实,其传粉媒介也一直未被发现。2002年3～4月,我们对神农架2个移植居群和5个天然居群进行了传粉生物学的定点观察,发现雌性三条熊蜂(Bombus (Diversobombus)trifasciatus Smith)、仿熊蜂(Bombus (Tricornibombus) imitator Pittion)和蜜蜂均访问独花兰,但只有二条熊蜂身体粘有花粉块,是独花兰的有效传粉者。三条熊蜂的访问频率很低,在113h的观察中只有9次访问,但在一个天然居群(population 3)中曾观察到一天4次的最高访问频率;访问主要在12：00～15：00出现,但在花上停留时间很短,不超过10s。在末被授粉的情况下,独花兰花朵大约3周后自然枯萎,但受粉后3、4d内即出现～系列形态和颜色的变化,包括花梗逐渐伸长,子房在花梗逐渐停止伸长后开始膨大等,表明花梗伸长可作为结实(授粉成功)的指标。人工授粉实验表明,自花、异花受粉后花梗均伸长,而套袋隔离花的则花梗不伸长,说明独花兰是自交亲和的异交种,需要昆虫传粉。根据传粉者的访问频率、居群中果实的分布,尤其是花距内无花蜜等特征,我们认为独花兰是一种欺骗性传粉的兰花。相对于其他欺骗性传粉的兰花,独花兰的自然结实率并不很低(26．98％),这与居群规模小会提高欺骗性传粉兰花结实率这一观点吻合。花粉块的输出数远高于结实数,这说明独花兰存在一定的花粉浪费。     

火把花的繁殖生物学研究

火把花（Colquhounia coccinea?）表现出典型的鸟媒综合征,因此具有作为引鸟景观植物的开发潜力。以自然、人工生境的火把花居群为研究对象,通过观察和试验对其开花物候、花部综合特征、访花动物及其行为、繁育系统、种子萌发特性进行研究,以明确火把花的繁殖特性及对不同访花动物的吸引潜力。结果显示,火把花的整体花期持续约3个月,单花花期为9.6±0.6 d;花蜜较丰富且稀薄,具有较短的花冠管和己糖为主的花蜜糖组成;访花动物主要是中华蜜蜂和多种食蜜鸟类,尤其是短喙的泛化鸟类,且在非自然生境中仍然能吸引鸟类访花;完全自交亲和但需要传粉者才能完成授粉,不存在花粉限制;不同授粉处理种子的发芽能力无显著差异;中华蜜蜂能有效传粉,鸟类的传粉作用需进一步验证。综上所述,火把花可供观赏的时间很长,具有明显的吸引鸟类访花的能力,容易通过有性繁殖途径快速获得大量幼苗。     

澜沧舞花姜繁殖生物学特性及其进化意义探讨

 舞花姜属（Globba）植物具有多样的繁殖策略。分布于西双版纳的澜沧舞花姜（Globba lancangensis）自然条件下既能结实,同时又能在花序下部产生珠芽。通过对澜沧舞花姜的花部性状、花粉活力、传粉昆虫的访花行为、结实状况、珠芽产量等多方面的观测,初步了解了澜沧舞花姜的繁殖生物学特性。结果表明,澜沧舞花姜具有雄花及两性花同株的性表达特征。雄花及两性花的花粉在中午12∶00以前活力很高,之后雄花的花粉活力急剧下降,而两性花的花粉到16∶00仍有萌发能力。澜沧舞花姜在花序上产生雄花及两性花,每个花序每天仅开少量的花,其中50%的时间仅开雄花或两性花,在整个种群中形成了一定程度的暂时性的雄花两性花异株现象,从而增加了异交的可能性。澜沧舞花姜雄花的存在为P/O低的两性花提供了花粉补贴,这使得它可以通过调节雄花与两性花比例来调节种群的P/O,从而保证一定的结实能力。人工自交与异交下结果率没有差异,但自交结实率显著低于异交结实率,表明澜沧舞花姜有明显的自交不亲和现象。排蜂（Megapis dorstata）和黄绿彩带蜂（Nomia strigata）是澜沧舞花姜的主要访花昆虫,其中排蜂是它的有效传粉昆虫。澜沧舞花姜可能通过雄花两性花同株与自交不亲和相结合来促进异交。     

What We Think We Know vs. What We Need to Know About Orchid Pollination and Conservation: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cypripedium</Emphasis> L. as a Model Lineage

While Darwin (1862, 1877) showed that reproductive success in orchid populations depended on adaptive floral morphology coupled with pollinator visitation a more recent review of the literature (Tremblay et al., 2005) confirmed that many out-breeding species are pollinator-limited because most orchid species showing low fecundity also lack rewards. The absence of rewards depresses both pollinator fidelity and the frequency of pollinator visits to an orchid population even though orchid flowers that lack rewards retain the same interlocking floral structures for precise pollinia removal and deposition found in related species that offer rewards. Using the genus, Cypripedium, as a model lineage of non-rewarding flowers this study also shows that the correlation between low fruit set in a Cypripedium sp. and its specific pollinator(s) is insufficient to predict specific frequencies of low fecundity. Annual rates of fruit set often vary broadly between populations of the same species and within the same population over several seasons. We speculate that fruit-set rates also decline when orchid demography and additional biotic and abiotic factors interrupt rates of pollinator activity (pre-zygotic) and fertilization/fruit maturation (post-zygotic). We suggest that that traditional field studies on pollination ecology and breeding systems be combined with data sets recording genetic variation and orchid flower demography in relation to seasonal variation in climate. We also propose that the same information be collected in regard to genetic variation, demography and phenology of populations of known orchid pollinators and co-blooming angiosperm species native to orchid habitats.     

Fruit set in a deceptive orchid: The effect of flowering phenology,display size,and local floral abundance

We investigated the effect of flowering time, display size, and local floral density on fruit set in Tolumnia variegata, a pollination-limited orchid that offers no reward to its pollinator(s). During 1990, natural variation in flowering time, display size, and fruit set were monitored in 508 plants at one locality in Puerto Rico. The following season, orchid floral abundance per host tree (Randia aculeata) was manipulated to investigate its effect on fruit set. Four floral abundance treatments were established (700, 500, 300, and 100), each replicated four times. Flowering time was the most important trait affecting fruit set. The proportion of plants setting at least one fruit was significantly high early and late in the season, but low during the flowering peak. Thus, strong disruptive selection differential on flowering phenology was found. Display size had little effect on fruit set. A weak, but significant disruptive selection differential on display size was found. Orchid floral abundance per host tree had a significant effect on fruit set. Early in the season, T. variegata flowers with intermediate number of conspecific flowers exhibited a greater probability of setting fruit than those in host trees with fewer or more flowers. Our results show that flowering phenology may be evolutionarily unstable, possibly a consequence of the deception pollination system. Furthermore, a deception strategy would be relatively unsuccessful in populations where plants are found in either very dense or sparse patches.     

There goes the neighborhood: apparent competition between invasive and native orchids mediated by a specialist florivorous weevil

The exotic orchid, Spathoglottis plicata, has naturalized and spread rapidly over Puerto Rico where it is generally considered to be innocuous. It is abundant and occupies the same habitat as the native orchid, Bletia patula. The two are hosts to the same native weevil, Stethobaris polita, a specialist on orchid flowers. We ask whether the weevils mediate apparent competition between the two orchids. We monitored weevil populations, floral damage and fruit set in B. patula in the presence and absence of S. plicata. We also experimentally tested whether weevils preferred one species over the other. Finally, we modeled the distribution of both orchid species to predict the extent by which the two species may interact in Puerto Rico. We found a significantly lower number of weevils and a higher fruit set for B. patula where S. plicata is absent, indicative that apparent competition is occurring. The choice experiments show that weevils prefer flowers of S. plicata over those of B. patula, but B. patula still sustained considerable damage. The current distribution of the native B. patula is nearly limited to the northern karst region of Puerto Rico. The naturalized S. plicata has a broader range and the models predict that its distribution will strongly overlap with that of B. patula. We expect the S. plicata invasion to continue and affect native orchids through apparent competition as long as the presence of S. plicata maintains elevated weevil populations. Thus, even seemingly harmless invasive orchids can have subtle but significant negative consequences.     

Mast fruiting in a hawkmoth-pollinated orchid Habenaria glaucifolia: an 8-year survey

Aims The hypothesis of predator satiation has been proposed to explain mast fruiting in various flowering plants. It considers that the simultaneous production of large numbers of seeds by a plant population reduces the risk of seed predation for each individual. Orchids produce huge numbers of seeds per fruit and rarely experience seed predation. It remains unclear which factors may affect fluctuating fruit production in orchids, which generally suffer a widespread pollen limitation. To explore the temporal pattern of fruiting and potential factors related to fluctuation in fruit production, we investigated reproductive success of a long-spurred orchid (Habenaria glaucifolia) in an alpine meadow with thousands of individuals over 8 years.Methods To estimate reproductive success, pollinator observation was conducted by day and at night, and pollinia removal and receipt were recorded in the field population for 8 years. To examine whether fruit set and seed set are pollen limited, we conducted supplementary pollination experiments and compared fruit set, seed set and pollinia movement of open-pollinated flowers from 2011 to 2013. We measured lengths of spurs and pollinator proboscises, and nectar volume and concentration, to identify potential pollinators.Important findings Hawkmoths were seen to be effective pollinators for H. glaucifolia in 3 years, whereas in the remaining 5 years no pollinators were observed, and consequently pollinia were rarely transferred. Numerous pollinia movements were observed in 2012, 2013 and 2014 (pollinia removal: 48, 59 and 85%; pollinia receipt 51, 70 and 80%), and correspondingly fruit set was significantly higher in 2012 and 2013 (59 and 46%) than in 2011 (25%). It was fruit set, rather than seed set, that was pollen limited in this orchid in the 3 years, in that supplementary pollination increased fruit set but did not increase seed set per fruit compared to natural. Three species of hawkmoths had proboscis lengths that matched the spur length of H. glaucifolia. Fruit set in this long spurred orchid depends on the activity of long-tongued hawkmoths, resulting in significant temporal variation in fruit production. Mast fruiting in this alpine orchid could be attributed to a 'sit and wait' strategy, awaiting an abundance of effective pollinators.     

Autonomous self‐pollination in the nectarless orchid Pogonia minor

The pollination biology of the nectarless orchid Pogonia minor was investigated in central Japan. The investigation revealed that the solitary flowers failed to attract pollinators, while high rates of fruit set were observed in the natural population. Comparable levels of fruit set were obtained in bagged, artificial self‐pollinated and artificial cross‐pollinated plants, indicating that the species is not pollinator‐limited for fruit set under natural conditions. Autonomous self‐pollination in P. minor resulted from a reduced rostellum, which allowed contact between the pollinia and the stigma. Self‐pollination is thought to be an adaptive response that provides reproductive assurance under conditions of pollinator limitation. Since pollen limitation is generally known to be frequent among deceptive orchids, strong pollen limitation is probably a driving force in the autonomous self‐pollination mechanism in the nectarless orchid P. minor.     

INFLORESCENCE SIZE AND FRUIT DISTRIBUTION AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN THREE ORCHID SPECIES

Fruit distribution among individuals in populations of three orchid species was analyzed. Fruit set was low in the three species. The distribution of fruits in the non-autogamous species was skewed to the right, with high variance: mean ratios, and a moderate to high proportion of fruitless plants. Larger inflorescence size did not necessarily result in an increase in percent fruit set but tended to increase the probability to produce at least one fruit. Pollinator-mediated selection on inflorescence size through fruit production may be limited by the low overall level of visitation and the resulting uncertainty of pollination at the individual level.     

Fruit set, nectar reward, and rarity in the Orchidaceae

A review of comparative levels of reproductive success among nectariferous and nectarless orchids worldwide was compiled from a comprehensive survey of fruit set from 117 orchid species in the literature and from our own field studies. It confirms the hypothesis that nectariferous orchids are more successful in setting fruit than are nectarless species. Overall fruit set figures for nectarless and nectariferous orchids were 19.5 and 49.3% for North America, 27.7 and 63.1% for Europe, 41.4 and 74.4% for the temperate southern hemisphere, and 11.5 and 24.9% for the tropics, demonstrating that the dichotomy is consistent across all geographical areas. On average, the provision of nectar doubles the probability of fruit set in both temperate and tropical areas, but tropical orchids are remarkable in that all (whether nectarless or nectariferous, or terrestrial or epiphytic) display low fruit productivity (<50%). Fruiting failure in the tropics may be balanced by higher productivity per capsule, since tropical orchid fruits contain on average 150 times more seeds than temperate ones. Hybridization occurs more frequently among nectarless orchids in Britain and Europe than among nectariferous ones, and there is a significant positive association between orchid rarity and lack of nectar reward in the British Isles. Sexual reproduction in the Orchidaceae is predominantly pollinator dependent, but this can sometimes be successfully circumvented by asexual seed production (agamospermy) or, more frequently, by automatic self-pollination (autogamy). The proportion of highly successful nectarless orchids from all geographic areas is very low and comparable with that of orchids offering rewards other than nectar (～14% of species in each case) emphasizing that high reproductive success is only associated with nectar reward (53% of species). It is suggested that the evolution of nectar production within the family has been the most frequent means of escaping the reproductive limitations of low pollinator visitation frequencies.     

Observations of putative pollinators of Hemipilia flabellata Bur.et Franch.(Orchidaceae) in north-west Yunnan Province, China

Interactions between Hemipilia flabellata and anthophilous insects were studied in northwestern Yunnan, China during June-July of 1996 and 1997. Twenty-seven species of insects were seen visiting the flowers of this species, although only male and female individuals of the bee Anthophora mangkamensis Wu were observed carrying the pollinaria. The frequency of visits by A.mangkamensis to this orchid was rather low. Pollinating bees normally sampled only the lowermost flowers in an inflorescence, staying for 1–3 seconds. This species is also characterized by low pollination, low fruit set (1–22%) and a very striking decrease in fruit production from bottom to top of the inflorescence. All of these indicate that the orchid may rely on deception to attract visitors. Ajuga forrestii Diels (Labiatae) appears to be the main or exclusive subsidiary nectar source for A.mangkamensis during the flowering period of H.flabellata . It appears that H.flabellata utilizes a food deceit pollination strategy for pollination. The orchid benefits from the great variation or flowers in colour and shape. Phenological, functional-morphometric and distribution data indicate that A.mangkamensis is an optimal pollinator of H.flabellala and thus the anthecological adaptation of the orchid to the pollen vector may be unique.     

Reproductive biology and pollination of Govenia utriculata: A syrphid fly orchid pollinated through a pollen-deceptive mechanism

The reproductive biology and pollination mechanisms of Govenia utriculata (Sw.) Lindl. were studied in a mesophytic semideciduous forest at Serra do Japi, south-eastern Brazil. The floral visitors and pollination mechanisms were recorded, and experimental pollinations were carried out to determine the breeding system of this species. Populations of G. utriculata growing at Serra do Japi are exclusively visited and pollinated by two species of hoverflies in the genus Salpingogaster (Diptera: Syrphidae) that are attracted by deceit to the flowers of this orchid species. The lip apex and the column base present small brownish and yellow to orange spots that mimic pollen clusters. Govenia utriculata is self-compatible, but pollinator dependent. Natural fruit set was low (10%), but similar to that of other non-obligatorily autogamous sympatric orchid species that occur at Serra do Japi and of other fly-pollinated orchid species pollinated through deceptive mechanisms.