Innervation of the knee joint in the rabbit and the Formosan rock-monkey (Macaca cyclopis): a retrograde HRP study.

The number and segmental distribution of cell bodies of sensory afferents and sympathetic efferent innervating to the knee joint of the rabbit and the Formosan rock-monkey were investigated using retrograde transport with horseradish peroxidase (HRP). After injecting HRP into the articular knee joint capsule of the rabbits, labeled neurons were found in the ipsilateral L4-S2 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). However, following injection of HRP into the articular cavity of the knee joint in the rabbit and the monkey, labeled neurons were found in both the ipsilateral DRG (L5-S2 and L4-S1 of the rabbit and monkey, respectively) and in the ipsilateral sympathetic ganglia (SG) (L4-S3 (rabbit) and L3-S1 (monkey)). The majority of labeled neurons within the DRG and the SG were composed of medium and large neurons in the monkey and the rabbit, respectively. The present findings suggest that the sensory projections from and sympathetic projection to the knee joint in rabbits and monkeys are similar, but that both projections of monkeys were "shifted" one segment cranially compared to the rabbit on both projections.     

Information on the distribution of Formosan monkeys (Macaca cyclopis)

The distribution of Formosan monkeys in Taiwan has been researched by the Macaque Research Group of Japan since 1967. In 1982, the Macaque Research Group of Japan conducted a questionnaire survey. From our past surveys, the answers to the questionnaire, and the 1982 survey, we were able to list 75 habitats of Formosan monkeys. The monkey population is more concentrated in southeast Taiwan than in other areas. This biased pattern of distribution may be attributed to the effect of forest destruction and regional development, rather than to the hunting activities by man. The density of monkey groups was estimated to be at least 0.1 group/km². The range of the group of Formosan monkeys at Chihpen village, Taitung, was estimated to be about 2 km². The size of this group is comparable to the average group size of Japanese monkeys.     

The distribution of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) neurons and fibers in the Formosan rock-monkey

The anatomical distribution of neurons and fibers containing Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone-Immunoreactivity (LHRH-IR) in the brain of the Formosan Rock-Monkey was investigated employing immunohistochemical techniques. LHRH-IR neurons were observed in an area demarcated rostrally by the diagonal band of Broca and caudally by the mammillary area. The majority of these neurons were principally localized in the preoptic area, periventricular zone, and the arcuate nucleus. The supraoptic nucleus, septal area, triangular septal nucleus, nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca, suprachiasmatic nucleus, retrochiasmatic area, mammillary area, and the amygdala also exhibited neuronal LHRH immunoreactivity. LHRH-IR fibers appeared to originate in all of the above areas of the hypothalamus, project caudally, and subsequently terminate in the median eminence (ME). In addition to the above, LHRH-IR fibers were also detected in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT). A scattering of LHRH-IR fibers were also observed in several extrahypothalamic regions, notably the subfornical organ, indusium griseum, habenular complex, septohypothalamic nucleus, and amygdala.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of the circumsporozoite protein gene of Plasmodium inui isolated from Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Taiwan

We characterized the complete nucleic and amino acid sequences of the Plasmodium inui circumsporozoite protein (Pincsp) gene and analyzed nucleotide diversity across the entire Pincsp gene by using 7 field isolates and strains Taiwan I and II obtained from Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Taiwan. The length of the circumsporozoite protein ( CSP ) gene ranged from 1077 to 1125 bp. Size polymorphisms were due to variations in the number of tandem repeat units. The non-repetitive (NR) region exhibited high homology (99.1 ～ 100 and 98.7 ～ 100% at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively) and was conserved among the variants (nucleotide diversities, π, of the 5'NR and 3'NR regions were 0.00364 and 0.00392, respectively). In the central repetitive (CR) region, we decomposed the sequences into 2 kinds of repeating amino acid motifs, i.e., a repeat unit R1, PA(P/A)(P/A)A(E)GG (n = 11-13), and a following repeat unit R2: P(A/G)(A/P/G)(P/Q)AQ(N/K) (n = 9-10). Analyzing these repeat sequences showed evidence of 3 genetic mechanisms for generating variations in the repeats of the Pincsp gene, i.e., point mutation, insertion, and recombination. These findings suggest that polymorphisms in the Pincsp gene are essentially limited to the CR region, which showed much greater variability in terms of length, number of repeats, and sequence.     

Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou‐Shan Nature Park,Taiwan

Ecotourism involving feeding wildlife has raised public attention and is a controversial issue, especially concerning nonhuman primates. Between July 2002 and April 2005, the behavior of monkeys and tourists was collected through scan samplings, focal samplings and behavior samplings at the Shou‐Shan Nature Park located in Taiwan's second largest city—Kaohsiung. In addition, the number of tourists and monkeys was counted in different hours and places within the park. Four hundred visitors were interviewed using a questionnaire to gather data on sex, age, purpose and frequency of visit to the park. The number of tourists was significantly higher during weekends than in weekdays in all locations. Humans dominated in the initiation of interspecies interactions—the overall ratio of human‐initiated and monkey‐initiated interactions was 2.44:1. Human–monkey conflicts accounted for only 16.4% of the total interactions (n=2,166), and adult human males and adult male macaques participated in higher rates than other age/sex groups in these conflicts. Visitors showed more affiliative behavior (15.9%) than agonistic behavior (8%) toward the macaques. In response to visitors' threat or attack, the Formosan macaques mostly showed submissive behavior with bared teeth, squealed or ran away to avoid confrontation (69.1%)—only few responded with counteraggression (18.7%). This study for the first time provided evidence that food provisioning increased both the frequency and duration of aggression among Formosan macaques (P<0.001). During food provisioning, the average frequency and the duration of agonistic events of macaques were more than 4 times higher compared with those without food provisioning. The average frequency of food provision by tourists was 0.73 times/hr—more than twice the incident that monkeys grabbed the food from tourists (0.34 times/hr). If people refrain from feeding monkeys and destroying the city park's natural vegetation, monkeys can be used to educate public about nature conservation in an urban setting. Am. J. Primatol. 71:214–222, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Reproductive parameters of the Taiwan monkey (Macaca cyclopis)

The following parameters of the Taiwan monkey,Macaca cyclopis, are presented and compared with other species ofMacaca: the menstrual cycle, sexual skin and vaginal desquamation changes during the menstrual cycle, time of ovulation, gestation period, breeding season, body weight of the newborn, age and body weight at menarche, body weight at first conception, spermatozoa count in the ejaculate, and the body weight at sexual maturity of the male.The many similarities in reproductive biology ofMacaca cyclopis, the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), and the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca irus) include sexual skin and vaginal desquamation changes during the menstrual cycle, time of ovulation, gestation period, and placental sign. Body weight ofM. cyclopis is lower thanM. mulatta at birth, at menarche and at the first conception in females and at sexual maturation in males, is heavier thanM. irus at birth and is not different fromM. radiata at birth. No difference in menstrual cycle ofM. cyclopis was observed in animals housed in air-conditioned rooms compared to those housed in nonair-conditioned rooms. Summer amenorrhea was not observed inM. cyclopis but a high incidence of low vaginal desquamation was noted to occur in summer months. The mode of length of the menstrual cycle ofM. cyclopis is shorter thanM. mulatta and other species ofMacaca. The breeding season ofM. cyclopis in the wild extends from the end of September to January. In laboratory conditions their fertile period extends throughout the year.This study was supported in part by the National Council on Science Development, Republic of China, and in part by the Damon Runyon Memorial Fund for Cancer Research, U. S. A. (DRG-841 B and C). The paper was presented at the ICLA Asian Pacific Meeting on Laboratory Animals held at Tokyo and Inuyama, Japan, on September 20–25, 1971.     

Within-group female-female agonistic interactions in Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis)

Feeding-related agonism among wild female Taiwanese macaques was investigated in two study groups at ecologically diverse sites (Fu-shan and Ken-ting) to determine whether contest-feeding competition was present in these groups. Females that contest for food within a primate group are hypothesized to form dominance hierarchies and tend to be philopatric. In this study we tested 1) whether Taiwanese macaque females show higher agonism in a feeding context, 2) whether they exhibit stronger agonism over higher-quality foods, and 3) whether higher agonism rates occur in smaller food patches. Female Taiwanese macaques at both study sites showed similar agonism rates in a feeding context (0.30 events/hr). They exhibited higher agonism rates inside food patches than outside food patches in the spring. Higher agonism rates occurred during seasons of higher fruit availability, and a lower agonism rate occurred in winter when the macaques switched to feeding on fallback foods. Females in the Fu-shan group exhibited higher proportions of aggressive interactions over higher-quality foods, such as animal matter and the reproductive parts of plants. In the Ken-ting group, 95.8% of feeding-related agonistic interactions among females occurred over fruits. Agonistic interactions that occurred in small food patches tended to result in the agonism recipient leaving the food patch. We conclude that female Taiwanese macaques show contest feeding competition in certain contexts. The patterns we observed have also been documented in other primate species in which females are philopatric and form linear dominance hierarchies.     

Food Habits of Formosan Rock Macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Jentse,Northeastern Taiwan,Assessed by Fecal Analysis and Behavioral Observation

We studied the food habits of the Formosan rock macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Jentse via fecal analysis and direct field observation from October 1991 to September 1992, and recorded macaques eating 51 plant species and insects of 5 orders. Macaques in Jentse spent more time feeding on fruits than on other plant parts or insects. However, there was seasonal variation in their food habits, i.e., they spent a higher proportion of time feeding on fruits and insects in summer, and on leaves and stems in winter. The major plant species consumed and the patterns of seasonal variation in the macaque diets identified by fecal analysis and field observation are similar. However, there are discrepancies between results from the two methods in some of the finer details of estimated dietary composition.     

Variability of tail length in hybrids of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) and the Taiwanese macaque (Macaca cyclopis)

In primates, tail length is subject to wide variation, and the tail may even be absent. Tail length varies greatly between each species group of the genus Macaca, which is explained by climatic factors and/or phylogeographic history. Here, tail length variability was studied in hybrids of the Japanese (M. fuscata) and Taiwanese (Macaca cyclopis) macaque, with various degrees of hybridization being evaluated through autosomal allele typing. Relative tail length (percent of crown–rump length) correlated well with the number of caudal vertebrae. Length profiles of caudal vertebrae of hybrids and parent species revealed a common pattern: the length of several proximal-most vertebrae do not differ greatly; then from the third or fourth vertebra, the length rapidly increases and peaks at around the fifth to seventh vertebra; then the length plateaus for several vertebrae and finally shows a gentle decrease. As the number of caudal vertebrae and relative tail length increase, peak vertebral length and lengths of proximal vertebrae also increase, except that of the first vertebra, which only shows a slight increase. Peak vertebral length and the number of caudal vertebrae explained 92?% of the variance in the relative tail length of hybrids. Relative tail length correlated considerably well with the degree of hybridization, with no significant deviation from the regression line being observed. Thus, neither significant heterosis nor hybrid depression occurred.     

Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in two populations of Taiwanese macaque (Macaca cyclopis)

Current genetic composition of a population is influenced by site-specific demographic history. We compared genetic diversity in two populations of Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis) with different site characteristics. Mitochondrial DNA variation in 145 individuals from one central, continuous population (Yushan) and one peripheral, isolated population (Shoushan) was ascertained by sequencing and PCR–SSCP of the 5 end hypervariable segment of the control region amplified from hair and fecal samples. All the samples from Yushan were of the same haplotype whereas those from Shoushan fell into 13 haplotypes. The mtDNA homogeneity in Yushan may indicate a local concentration of troops status of the population or the result of population bottleneck in the recent past by severe hunting. The relatively higher genetic diversity in the Shoushan population was contributed by released or escaped captive macaques. In addition, a simple method for preserving fecal sample as a DNA source is also recommended in the study.     

Incidence of neutralizing antibodies to Herpes B virus in the Taiwan monkey (Macaca cyclopis)

A group of 46 recently captured Taiwan monkeys (Macaca cyclopis) was tested for neutralizing antibody for Herpes B virus. Results indicated that 11 (24%) were positive, 25 (54%) were negative, and 10 (22%) were suspect. This is thought to reflect the incidence in nature. Subsequent samples from the same animals, acquired 7 months postarrival, indicated 10 (22%) positive, 27 (59%) negative, and 9 (20%) suspects. A number of animals (18) converted from one category to another, assumedly from loss or acquisition of immunity during the period. A suggestion of geographic difference in incidence of titers was detected on the first sample. Twenty-eight human caretakers and veterinarians were tested with no positives, 25 negatives and 3 suspect.Reprints may be obtained from:Publications Office, NAMRU-2, Box 14, APO San Francisco 96263 or7-1 Kung Yuan Lu, Taipei, Taiwan.     

Reproduction in captive Taiwan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in comparison to other common macaque species

Twenty-five years of reproductive and birth data from a Macaca cyclopis colony at the New England Regional Primate Research Center (NERPRC) indicate that these animals are seasonal breeders with a birth peak between February and May. Interbirth intervals have a mean of 587.5 ± 45.6 days. The age at first reproduction for females is 5.08 ±.357 years and for males 5.01 ± .94. The normal menstrual cycle length ranges from 24–31 (mean 27.9 ± .506) days, with “offseason” long cycles ranging from 43–69 days. For 10 females studied prospectively, the sex skin color cycle ranged from 23–34 days and exhibited no long cycles. The peak estradiol value was 1.35 nmol/L on day 11 (range 10–12) of the menstrual cycle. Estradiol values ranged from 0.7–2.0 nmol/L. The peak progesterone value was 23 nmol/L on day 21 (17–23). Progesterone levels ranged from 10–42 nmol/L. The observed lower fecundability of M. cylopis in a timed mating program is consistent with later ages at first reproduction and longer interbirth compared to the other species in breeding colonies at NERPRC. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Life history variables of wild troops of formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting,Taiwan

A study on population dynamics of wild Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting, southern Taiwan, was conducted from March 1985 to August 1990. At first, only one monkey troop was studied. It fissioned in 1987 and both of the daughter troops have been observed since then. Total number of animals increased from 10 to 29 over the years, but the sizes of individual troops have never been more than 20. Seasonality in breeding has been detected: copulations were concentrated in the period from November to January and 75% of all the 28 births occurred between April and June. Time of birth by parous females without offspring from the preceding year was earlier than that of lactating females. Young females gave their first births at 4 or 5 years of age. Total birth rate over the study period was 0.8 infant per female per year. Hunting was the main cause of death while natural mortality rate was low for the animals. There was only one adult male in each troop for most of the time. Troop males in the two daughter troops have been replaced two or three times in the three years by some solitary males that moved around in the area. The reproductive parameters of Formosan macaques in Kenting were found to be more similar to that of rhesus monkeys than to Japanese macaques. And a case of higher reproductive success in a high-ranking matriline was reported.     

Antibodies to Epstein-Barr Virus in a Burkitt's Lymphoma Cell Line in Taiwan Monkeys (Macaca cyclopis)

The prevalence of Taiwan monkeys with antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus, as detected by the indirect immunofluorescence technique, was lower than that of healthy persons in Taiwan.     

Distribution of FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the Formosan monkey (Macaca cyclopsis)

The distribution of FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the Formosan monkey (Macaca cyclopsis) was investigated employing immunohistochemical techniques. FMRFamide-containing cells were found to be widely distributed throughout the forebrain. Principal densities of FMRFamide neuronal perikarya were observed in the following areas: the amygdaloid complex, the olfactory tubercle, the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the septum, the caudate-putamen and the arcuate nucleus. A large number of immunoreactive fibers were observed in areas ranging from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord, and were noted in the following locations: the preoptic area, the tuberal and posterior hypothalamic areas, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the nuclei of the spinal trigeminal nerve, the hypoglossal nucleus, the nucleus of the solitary tract, and the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The results generally parallel those described in the rat and guinea pig.     

Antibodies to Epstein-Barr Virus in a Burkitt''s Lymphoma Cell Line in Taiwan Monkeys (Macaca cyclopis)

The prevalence of Taiwan monkeys with antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus, as detected by the indirect immunofluorescence technique, was lower than that of healthy persons in Taiwan.