Methylglyoxal causes strong weakening of detoxifying capacity and apoptotic cell death in rat hippocampal neurons

The hippocampus is known to play a crucial role in learning and memory. Recent data from literature show that cognitive problems, common to aged or diabetic patients, may be related to accumulation of toxic alpha-oxoaldehydes such as methylglyoxal. Thus, it is possible that methylglyoxal could be, at least in part, responsible for the impairment of cognitive functions, and the knowledge of the mechanisms through which this compound elicits neuronal toxicity could be useful for the development of possible therapeutic strategies. We previously reported a high susceptibility of hippocampal neurons to methylglyoxal, through an oxidation-dependent mechanism. In the present study, we extend our investigation on the molecular mechanisms which underlie methylglyoxal toxicity, focusing on possible effects on expression and activity of glyoxalases, its main detoxifying enzymes, and glutathione peroxidase, as well as on the levels of reduced glutathione. We also investigate methylglyoxal-induced modulation of brain derived neurotrophic factor and proinflammatory cytokines. Our results show that methylglyoxal causes a dramatic depletion of reduced glutathione and a significant inhibition of both glyoxalase and glutathione peroxidase activities. Furthermore, methylglyoxal treatment seems to affect the expression of inflammatory cytokines and survival factors. In conclusion, our findings suggest that methylglyoxal-induced neurotoxicity occurs through the impairment of detoxification pathway and depletion of reduced glutathione. This, in turn, triggers widespread apoptotic cell death, occurring through the convergence of both mitochondrial and Fas-receptor pathways.     

TRPV1 stimulation triggers apoptotic cell death of rat cortical neurons

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) functions as a polymodal nociceptor and is activated by several vanilloids, including capsaicin, protons and heat. Although TRPV1 channels are widely distributed in the brain, their roles remain unclear. Here, we investigated the roles of TRPV1 in cytotoxic processes using TRPV1-expressing cultured rat cortical neurons. Capsaicin induced severe neuronal death with apoptotic features, which was completely inhibited by the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine and was dependent on extracellular Ca²⁺ influx. Interestingly, nifedipine, a specific L-type Ca²⁺ channel blocker, attenuated capsaicin cytotoxicity, even when applied 2-4 h after the capsaicin. ERK inhibitor PD98059 and several antioxidants, but not the JNK and p38 inhibitors, attenuated capsaicin cytotoxicity. Together, these data indicate that TRPV1 activation triggers apoptotic cell death of rat cortical cultures via L-type Ca²⁺ channel opening, Ca²⁺ influx, ERK phosphorylation, and reactive oxygen species production.     

High-performance capillary electrophoresis for determining HIV-1 Tat protein in neurons

The HIV-1 protein, Tat has been implicated in AIDS pathogenesis however, the amount of circulating Tat is believed to be very low and its quantification has been difficult. We performed the quantification of Tat released from infected cells and taken up by neurons using high performance capillary electrophoresis. This is the first report to successfully measure the amount of Tat in neurons and places Tat as a key player involved in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders.     

Protein homeostasis in neurons and its pathological alterations

In neuronal cells, proteins are synthesized on ribosomes from the genetic information encoded in DNA. In some instances translation takes place at the neuronal cell soma but in other it occurs at distal location, such as in a dendritic spine. Folding is usually initiated before the completion of protein synthesis and its outcome strictly depends on the local environment in which the nascent protein is submerged. Incompletely folded proteins and, more importantly, misfolded proteins are under the surveillance of several quality control systems that re-establish the correct conformation or initiate protein degradation. Regulation and maintenance of these systems is a vital issue for neuronal and glial cells, and impairments at different levels leads to neurodegenerative diseases.     

Trans-dominant Tat mutants with alterations in the basic domain inhibit HIV-1 gene expression

The Tat protein of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is required for efficient viral gene expression. By means of mutational analyses, several domains of the Tat protein that are required for complete activation of HIV-1 gene expression have been defined. These include an amino-terminal activating domain, a cysteine-rich dimerization domain, and a basic domain important in the binding of Tat to the trans-activation response element (TAR) and in Tat nuclear localization. Recently, we described a mutation, known as delta tat, which resulted in a protein with a truncated basic domain. This protein had a "trans-dominant" phenotype in that it inhibited wild-type Tat activation of the HIV-1 LTR. To further characterize the requirements for generating a Tat trans-dominant phenotype, we constructed a variety of Tat proteins with truncations or substitutions in the basic domain. A number of these proteins showed a trans-dominant phenotype. These Tat mutants also inhibited activation of the HIV-1 LTR by a protein composed of Tat fused to the prokaryotic R17 (phage MS2) RNA-binding protein in which the R17 recognition element was inserted in the HIV-1 LTR in place of TAR. Thus, an intact TAR element was not required for this inhibition. We also studied the cellular localization of Tat and a trans-dominant Tat mutant by means of immunofluorescence staining with the use of antibodies reactive to different domains of the Tat protein. The results indicated that Tat becomes localized predominantly in the nucleus both in the presence and absence of the trans-dominant Tat construct, suggesting that the trans-dominant mutant does not inhibit Tat nuclear localization. These studies further define the requirements for the creation of trans-dominant Tat mutants, and suggest that the mechanism of trans-dominant Tat inhibition may be either the formation of an inactive complex between wild-type and mutant Tat or sequestration of cellular factors involved in regulating HIV-1 gene expression.     

HIV-1 Tat蛋白与艾滋病脑病

Tat 蛋白是HIV-1 编码的反式转录激活因子,其主要功能是反式激活HIV-1病毒基因组转录的起始和延伸,启动病毒复制.近年来研究发现,Tat 蛋白在HIV-1感染所引起的严重中枢神经系统（CNS）并发症--艾滋病脑病中起重要作用,是艾滋病脑病发生与发展的重要致病因子.本文就HIV-1 Tat蛋白在艾滋病脑病中的研究进展作一综述.     

HIV-1 Tat targets Tip60 to impair the apoptotic cell response to genotoxic stresses

HIV-1 transactivator Tat uses cellular acetylation signalling by targeting several cellular histone acetyltransferases (HAT) to optimize its various functions. Although Tip60 was the first HAT identified to interact with Tat, the biological significance of this interaction has remained obscure. We had previously shown that Tat represses Tip60 HAT activity. Here, a new mechanism of Tip60 neutralization by Tat is described, where Tip60 is identified as a substrate for the newly reported p300/CBP-associated E4-type ubiquitin-ligase activity, and Tat uses this mechanism to induce the polyubiquitination and degradation of Tip60. Tip60 targeting by Tat results in a dramatic impairment of the Tip60-dependent apoptotic cell response to DNA damage. These data reveal yet unknown strategies developed by HIV-1 to increase cell resistance to genotoxic stresses and show a role of Tat as a modulator of cellular protein ubiquitination.     

Altered distribution of mitochondria impairs calcium homeostasis in rat hippocampal neurons in culture

The specificity of Ca2+ signals is conferred in part by limiting changes in cytosolic Ca2+ to subcellular domains. Mitochondria play a major role in regulating Ca2+ in neurons and may participate in its spatial localization. We examined the effects of changes in the distribution of mitochondria on NMDA-induced Ca2+ increases. Hippocampal cultures were treated with the microtubule-destabilizing agent vinblastine, which caused the mitochondria to aggregate and migrate towards one side of the neuron. This treatment did not appear to decrease the energy status of mitochondria, as indicated by a normal membrane potential and pH gradient across the inner membrane. Moreover, electron microscopy showed that vinblastine treatment altered the distribution but not the ultrastructure of mitochondria. NMDA (200 micro m, 1 min) evoked a greater increase in cytosolic Ca2+ in vinblastine-treated cells than in untreated cells. This increase did not result from impaired Ca2+ efflux, enhanced Ca2+ influx, opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore or altered function of endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores. Ca2+ uptake into mitochondria was reduced by 53% in vinblastine-treated cells, as reported by mitochondrially targeted aequorin. Thus, the distribution of mitochondria maintained by microtubules is critical for buffering Ca2+ influx. A subset of mitochondria close to a Ca2+ source may preferentially regulate Ca2+ microdomains, set the threshold for Ca2+-induced toxicity and participate in local ATP production.     

JDV Tat反式激活LTR与HIV-1 Tat采用类似的细胞因子

为分析JDV Tat在反式激活JDV及HIV-1 LTR过程中是否采用与HIV-1 Tat类似的细胞因子,本文构建了包含完整激活域的jTat70和hTat47,同时构建了cyclin T1和CDK9真核表达及反义转译质粒.过量表达hTat47和jTat70对hTat反式激活HIV-1 LTR,jTat反式激活JDV和HIV-1 LTR均有明显的抑制作用推测jTat和hTat的反式激活作用可能涉及类似的细胞因子.通过cyclin T1和CDK9的反义转译质粒对jTat反式激活的抑制作用证实这两种细胞因子参与了jTat对JDV和HIV-1LTR的反式激活.     

JDV Tat反式激活LTR与HIV-1 Tat采用类似的细胞因子

为分析JDV Tat在反式激活JDV及HIV-1 LTR过程中是否采用与H1V-1 Tat类似的细胞因子,本文构建了包含完整激活域的jTat70和hTat47,同时构建了cyclin T1和CDK9真核表达及反义转译质粒。过量表达hTat47和jTat70对hTat反式激活HIV-1 LTR,jTat反式激活JDV和HIV-1 LTR均有明显的抑制作用推测jTat和hTat的反式激活作用可能涉及类似的细胞因子。通过cyclin T1和CDK9的反义转译质粒对jTat反式激活的抑制作用证实这两种细胞因子参与了jTat对JDV和HIV-1 LTR的反式激活。     

Comparative analysis of HIV-1 Tat variants

HIV-1 Tat protein is a crucial element for viral replication; therefore, its inhibition might be exploited against the AIDS infection. To gain insights on the natural variability of this protein, we present a comparative investigation on the relationship between the primary sequences and the experimentally available three-dimensional structures from the HIV-1 Tat variants Z2, BRU, and MAL. Our computational tools include sequence conservation algorithms, structural analysis, electrostatic modeling, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We find that two regions located between residues 10-18 and 41-52 display the highest primary sequence conservation, while the most conserved region among the available structures corresponds approximately to the segment between positions approximately 44 and 50. Furthermore, in spite of their large structural divergence, Tat variants share a common mode for long-range intramolecular interactions. Finally, the flexibility of the Z2, BRU, and MAL variants, as emerging from multinanosecond MD simulations, is rather similar. Based on this work, we conclude that the turnlike region between amino acids 44 and 50 is structurally most conserved, emerging as an important motif for pharmaceutical targeting aimed toward inhibiting Tat action.     

Molecular dynamics simulations on HIV-1 Tat

Molecular dynamics simulations are used to investigate dynamics and intramolecular interactions of the HIV-1 transactivator (Tat) in aqueous solution. The calculations are based on the AMBER force field with particle mesh Ewald treatment for long-range electrostatics. The Tat structure exhibits a large flexibility, consistent with its absence of secondary structure elements. From an analysis of the correlation matrix and of electrostatic interactions we suggest that segments expressed by the two exons (amino acids 1-72 and 73-86, respectively) exhibit rather separated dynamic and energetic properties. We also identify intramolecular interactions of importance for structure stabilization. In particular, significant electrostatic interactions are recognized between the N-terminus and the basic domain of the protein, consistent with site-directed mutagenesis performed in this work.     

HIV-1 Tat induces TNF-alpha production by human monocytes: involvement of calcium and PKC pathways

In this study we investigated the signaling pathways triggered by Tat in human monocyte to induce TNF-alpha. In monocytes, calcium, PKA, and PKC pathways are highly implicated in the expression of cytokine genes. Our data show that (i) extracellular calcium is required for the calcium signal initiated by Tat in the monocyte and is required for TNF-alpha production, PKC pathway is also required, whereas the PKA pathway does not seem to be involved (ii) downstream from PKC, activation of NF kappa B is essential while ERK1/2 MAP kinases, even though activated by Tat, are not directly involved in the pathway signaling leading to TNF-alpha production.