Defining the morphological phenotype: 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) is a novel marker for in situ detection of canine but not rat olfactory ensheathing cells

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are the non-myelinating glial cells of the olfactory nerves and bulb. The fragmentary characterization of OECs in situ during normal development may be due to their small size requiring intricate ultrastructural analysis and to the fact that available markers for in situ detection are either expressed only by OEC subpopulations or lost during development. In the present study, we searched for markers with stable expression in OECs and investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of CNPase, an early oligodendrocyte/Schwann cell marker, in comparison with the prototype marker p75^NTR. Anti-CNPase antibodies labeled canine but not rat OECs in situ, while Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes were positive in both species. CNPase immunoreactivity in the dog was confined to all OECs throughout the postnatal development and associated with the entire cell body, including its finest processes, while p75^NTR was mainly detected in perineural cells and only in some neonatal OECs. Adult olfactory bulb slices displayed CNPase expression after 4 and 10 days, while p75^NTR was detectable only after 10 days in vitro. Finally, treatment of purified adult canine OECs with fibroblast growth factor-2 significantly reduced CNPase expression at the protein and mRNA level. Taken together, we conclude that CNPase but not p75^NTR is a stable marker suitable for in situ visualization of OECs that will facilitate their light-microscopic characterization and challenge our general view of OEC marker expression in situ. The fact that canine but not rat OECs expressed CNPase supports the idea that glia from large animals differs substantially from rodents.     

Low-Dose Curcumin Stimulates Proliferation,Migration and Phagocytic Activity of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells

One of the promising strategies for neural repair therapies is the transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) which are the glial cells of the olfactory system. We evaluated the effects of curcumin on the behaviour of mouse OECs to determine if it could be of use to further enhance the therapeutic potential of OECs. Curcumin, a natural polyphenol compound found in the spice turmeric, is known for its anti-cancer properties at doses over 10 µM, and often at 50 µM, and it exerts its effects on cancer cells in part by activation of MAP kinases. In contrast, we found that low-dose curcumin (0.5 µM) applied to OECs strikingly modulated the dynamic morphology, increased the rate of migration by up to 4-fold, and promoted significant proliferation of the OECs. Most dramatically, low-dose curcumin stimulated a 10-fold increase in the phagocytic activity of OECs. All of these potently stimulated behavioural characteristics of OECs are favourable for neural repair therapies. Importantly, low-dose curcumin gave a transient activation of p38 kinases, which is in contrast to the high dose curcumin effects on cancer cells in which these MAP kinases tend to undergo prolonged activation. Low-dose curcumin mediated effects on OECs demonstrate cell-type specific stimulation of p38 and ERK kinases. These results constitute the first evidence that low-dose curcumin can modulate the behaviour of olfactory glia into a phenotype potentially more favourable for neural repair and thereby improve the therapeutic use of OECs for neural repair therapies.     

Morphological and functional plasticity of olfactory ensheathing cells

In the primary olfactory pathway, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) extend processes to envelop bundles of olfactory axons as they course towards their termination in the olfactory bulb. The expression of growth-promoting adhesion and extracellular matrix molecules by OECs, and their spatially close association with olfactory axons are consistent with OECs being involved in promoting and guiding olfactory axon growth. Because of this, OECs have been employed as a possible tool for inducing axonal regeneration in the injured adult CNS, resulting in significant functional recovery in some animal models and promising outcomes from early clinical applications. However, fundamental aspects of OEC biology remain unclear. This brief review discusses some of the experimental data that have resulted in conflicting views with regard to the identity of OECs. We present here recent findings which support the notion of OECs as a single but malleable phenotype which demonstrate extensive morphological and functional plasticity depending on the environmental stimuli. The review includes a discussion of the normal functional role of OECs in the developing primary olfactory pathway as well as their interaction with regenerating axons and reactive astrocytes in the novel environment of the injured CNS. The use of OECs to induce repair in the injured nervous system reflects the functional plasticity of these cells. Finally, we will explore the possibility that recent microarray data could point to OECs assuming an innate immune function or playing a role in modulating neuroinflammation.     

成年转基因小鼠嗅鞘细胞的培养、纯化及生物学特性

已有多项研究表明,嗅鞘细胞具有修复中枢及外周神经损伤的潜能。我们选用了表达增强型绿色荧光蛋白（enhanced green fluorescent protein,eGFP）的成年小鼠,分离其双侧嗅球嗅神经纤维层及嗅小球层细胞,体外原代培养并予以纯化。同时结合共聚焦、相差显微镜,细胞增殖分析及免疫组织化学鉴定等技术,对其生物学活性进行研究。结果表明：（1）原代培养转基因成年小鼠嗅球嗅鞘细胞（Olfactory ensheathing cells,OECs）15d后,主要存在两种不同形态和免疫组织化学特征的细胞。一种是带有长突起的双极或多极OECs,表达P75^NTR（P75 low affinity neurotrophic receptor）、S100和胶质原纤维酸性蛋白（glial fibrillary acidic protein,GFAP）。另一种则是对Thy 1．1抗体免疫反应阳性,呈扁平或内皮样形态的成纤维细胞。（2）根据不同类型细胞在未覆层的培养器皿上贴壁速度的差异,我们建立了一种简单易行、不需任何抗体或昂贵仪器的细胞纯化方法,获得了大量高纯度的OECs。（3）在连续纯化培养22d后,OECs仍能保持较高的增殖活性。本实验支持和丰富了OECs发育的相关理论,为进一步体内移植修复CNS损伤提供了理想的材料。     

Axonal signalling and the making of olfactory ensheathing cells: a hypothesis

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are Schwann cell-like glial cells of the olfactory system that promote neural repair under experimental conditions. It is a matter of debate in how far OECs resemble Schwann cells and whether they possess specific properties. Although OECs have been characterized mainly with respect to their regenerative effects after transplantation, both their cellular identity and the regulating factors involved have remained vague. The aim of this article is to define OEC and Schwann-cell identity in molecular terms, and to discuss crucial factors that are involved in determination in vitro and in vivo. Distinct OEC features such as the down-regulation of the low affinity neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) by neuronal contact are apparent in vivo under physiological conditions, whereas OECs acquire a Schwann cell-like phenotype and up-regulate p75(NTR) expression in vitro and following transplantation into the lesioned spinal cord. This might indicate that establishment of the OEC phenotype depends on specific axonal stimuli. In this review we hypothesize that OECs and Schwann cells possess malleable cellular phenotypes that acquire distinct features only upon specific interaction with their natural neuronal partner.This concept is consistent with previous findings in vitro and in vivo, and might be relevant for studies that use OECs and Schwann cells for nervous system repair.     

自组装IKVAV多肽纳米纤维支架凝胶及其对嗅鞘细胞的作用

旨在观察自组装IKVAV多肽纳米纤维支架凝胶对鼠嗅鞘细胞(OECs)的作用。通过调整IKVAV溶液pH值并加入培养液触发多肽自组装为支架凝胶, 用原子力显微镜检测IKVAV分子可以自组装成编织状纳米纤维(直径为3~5 nm)。采用原代分离培养方法获得OECs单细胞悬液后, 使用差速贴壁法两次纯化OECs且在第12天通过免疫染色计数OECs纯度为85%。将IKVAV多肽纳米纤维支架凝胶与OECs复合培养, 倒置显微镜下观察OECs生长良好, Calcein-AM/PI活、死细胞染色表明活细胞数达95%。CCK-8法间接细胞计数证实IKVAV多肽可促进OECs的黏附, 对OECs增殖没有影响。由此可见IKVAV多肽可以自组装成纳米纤维支架凝胶且对OECs有良好的生物相容性及黏附作用, 可作为神经组织工程支架材料。     

Fibroblasts Isolated from Human Middle Turbinate Mucosa Cause Neural Progenitor Cells to Differentiate into Glial Lineage Cells

Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) is a potential therapy for repair of spinal cord injury (SCI). Autologous transplantation of OECs has been reported in clinical trials. However, it is still controversial whether purified OECs or olfactory mucosa containing OECs, fibroblasts and other cells should be used for transplantation. OECs and fibroblasts were isolated from olfactory mucosa of the middle turbinate from seven patients. The percentage of OECs with p75^NTR+ and GFAP⁺ ranged from 9.2% to 73.2%. Fibroblasts were purified and co-cultured with normal human neural progenitors (NHNPs). Based on immunocytochemical labeling, NHNPs were induced into glial lineage cells when they were co-cultured with the mucosal fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that OECs can be isolated from the mucosa of the middle turbinate bone as well as from the dorsal nasal septum and superior turbinates, which are the typical sites for harvesting OECs. Transplantation of olfactory mucosa containing fibroblasts into the central nervous system (CNS) needs to be further investigated before translation to clinical application.     

The therapeutic potential of human olfactory-derived stem cells

Stem cells from fetal and adult central nervous system have been isolated and characterized, providing populations for potential replacement therapy for traumatic injury repair and neurodegenerative diseases. The regenerative capacity of the olfactory system has attracted scientific interest. Studies focusing on animal and human olfactory bulb ensheathing cells (OECs) have heightened the expectations that OECs can enhance axonal regeneration and repair demyelinating diseases. Harvest of OECs from the olfactory bulb requires highly invasive surgery, which is a major obstacle. In contrast, olfactory epithelium (OE) has a unique regenerative capacity and is readily accessible from its location in the nasal cavity, allowing for harvest without lasting damage to the donor. Adult OE contains progenitors responsible for the normal life-long continuous replacement of neurons and supporting cells. Culture techniques have been established for human OE that generate populations of mitotically active neural progenitors that form neurospheres (Roisen et al., 2001; Winstead et al., 2005). The potential application of this technology includes autologous transplantation where minimal donor material can be isolated, expanded ex vivo, and lineage restricted to a desired phenotype prior to/or after re-implantation. Furthermore, these strategies circumvent the ethical issues that arise with embryonic or fetal tissues. The long term goal is to develop procedures through which a victim of a spinal cord injury or neurodegenerative condition would serve as a source of progenitors for his/her own regenerative grafts, avoiding the need for immunosuppression and ethical controversy. In addition, these cells can provide populations for pharmacological and/or diagnostic evaluation.     

Developmental biology of olfactory sensory neurons

Proliferation, differentiation and death of olfactory neurons occur continually, even in adult animals. New data suggest that growth factors regulate the rate of cell proliferation. Early growth of olfactory axons in embryonic development is accompanied by the migration of epithelial cells from the olfactory placode toward the presumptive olfactory bulb. Maturation and ciliogenesis at the dendritic end of the cell is apparently dependent on a signal(s) from the bulb. The total life span of the neuron depends on maintenance of contact with the bulb. Olfactory life span is normally variable but is curtailed substantially in the absence of the bulb.     

TRIM32-dependent transcription in adult neural progenitor cells regulates neuronal differentiation

In the adult mammalian brain, neural stem cells in the subventricular zone continuously generate new neurons for the olfactory bulb. Cell fate commitment in these adult neural stem cells is regulated by cell fate-determining proteins. Here, we show that the cell fate-determinant TRIM32 is upregulated during differentiation of adult neural stem cells into olfactory bulb neurons. We further demonstrate that TRIM32 is necessary for the correct induction of neuronal differentiation in these cells. In the absence of TRIM32, neuroblasts differentiate slower and show gene expression profiles that are characteristic of immature cells. Interestingly, TRIM32 deficiency induces more neural progenitor cell proliferation and less cell death. Both effects accumulate in an overproduction of adult-generated olfactory bulb neurons of TRIM32 knockout mice. These results highlight the function of the cell fate-determinant TRIM32 for a balanced activity of the adult neurogenesis process.     

甘丙肽及其受体在嗅成鞘细胞中的表达及对细胞增殖的影响

本实验从新生大鼠嗅球中分离出嗅成鞘细胞,进行体外培养。运用RT—PCR方法检测甘丙肽及其受体在体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞中的表达;运用MTT法检测甘丙肽及其受体激动剂、拮抗剂对嗅成鞘细胞增殖的影响。结果显示：嗅成鞘细胞表达甘丙肽(GAL)及其受体GalR2,而不表达其他两种受体GalRl和GalR3;甘丙肽及两种受体激动剂GALl-11和GAL2-11能够明显地抑制体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞的增殖,这一效应可被非特异性甘丙肽受体拮抗剂M35所阻断。     

甘丙肽及其受体在嗅成鞘细胞中的表达及对细胞增殖的影响

本实验从新生大鼠嗅球中分离出嗅成鞘细胞,进行体外培养。运用RT-PCR方法检测甘丙肽及其受体在体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞中的表达;运用MTT法检测甘丙肽及其受体激动剂、拮抗剂对嗅成鞘细胞增殖的影响。结果显示:嗅成鞘细胞表达甘丙肽(GAL)及其受体GalR2,而不表达其他两种受体GalR1和GalR3;甘西肽及两种受体激动剂GAL1-11和GAL2-11能够明显地抑制体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞的增殖,这一效应可被非特异性甘丙肽受体拮抗剂M35所阻断。     

成年转基因小鼠嗅鞘细胞的培养、纯化及生物学特性

已有多项研究表明,嗅鞘细胞具有修复中枢及外周神经损伤的潜能。我们选用了表达增强型绿色荧光蛋白(enhancedgreenfluorescentprotein,eGFP)的成年小鼠,分离其双侧嗅球嗅神经纤维层及嗅小球层细胞,体外原代培养并予以纯化。同时结合共聚焦、相差显微镜,细胞增殖分析及免疫组织化学鉴定等技术,对其生物学活性进行研究。结果表明:(1)原代培养转基因成年小鼠嗅球嗅鞘细胞(Olfactoryensheathingcells,OECs)15d后,主要存在两种不同形态和免疫组织化学特征的细胞。一种是带有长突起的双极或多极OECs,表达P75~(NIR)(P75lowaffinityneurotrophicreceptor)S100和胶质原纤维酸性蛋白(glialfibrillaryacidicprotein,GFAP)。另一种则是对Thy1.1抗体免疫反应阳性,呈扁平或内皮样形态的成纤维细胞。(2)根据不同类型细胞在未覆层的培养器皿上贴壁速度的差异,我们建立了一种简单易行、不需任何抗体或昂贵仪器的细胞纯化方法,获得了大量高纯度的OECs。(3)在连续纯化培养22d后,OECs仍能保持较高的增殖活性。本实验支持和丰富了OECs发育的相关理论,为进一步体内移植修复CNS损伤提供了理想的材料。     

Olfactory ensheathing cells: their role in central nervous system repair

The olfactory system is an unusual tissue in that it can support neurogenesis throughout life; permitting the in-growth and synapse formation of olfactory receptor axons into the central nervous system (CNS) environment of the olfactory bulb. It is thought that this unusual property is in part due to the olfactory glial cells, termed olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), but also due to neuronal stem cells. These glial cells originate from the olfactory placode and possess many properties in common with the glial cells from the peripheral nervous system (PNS), Schwann cells. Recent data has suggested that olfactory ensheathing cells are a distinct glial cell type and possess properties, which might make them more suitable for transplant-mediated repair of central nervous system injury models. This paper reviews the biological properties of these cells and illustrates their use in central nervous system repair.     

Electrophysiological Characterisation of Human Umbilical Cord Blood-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Induced by Olfactory Ensheathing Cell-Conditioned Medium

Umbilical cord blood-derived marrow stromal cells (UCB-MSCs) with high proliferation capacity and immunomodulatory properties are considered to be a good candidate for cell-based therapies. But until now, little work has been focused on the differentiation of UCB-MSCs. In this work, UCB-MSCs were demonstrated to be negative for CD34 and CD45 expression but positive for CD90 and CD105 expression. The gate values of UCB-MSCs for CD90 and CD105 were 99.3 and 98.6 %, respectively. Two weeks after treatment, the percentage of neuron-like cells differentiated from UCB-MSCs was increased to 84 ± 12 % in the experimental group [treated with olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs)-conditioned medium] and they were neuron-specific enolase positive; few neuron-like cells were found in the control group (without OECs-conditioned medium). Using whole-cell recording, sodium and potassium currents were recorded in UCB-MSCs after differentiation by OECs. Thus, human UCB-MSCs could be differentiated to neural cells by secreted secretion from OECs and exhibited electrophysiological properties similar to mature neurons after 2 weeks post-induction. These results imply that OECs can be used as a new strategy for stem cell differentiation and provide an alternative neurogenesis pathway for generating sufficient numbers of neural cells for cell therapy.     

Cell surface expression of 27C7 by neonatal rat olfactory ensheathing cells in situ and in vitro is independent of axonal contact

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are Schwann cell-like glial cells of the olfactory system that promote neural regeneration after transplantation into the injured central nervous system. Compared to the closely related Schwann cells, however, the biological characterization of OECs has remained fragmentary. This is due to the fact that the expression of OEC-specific markers is subject to complex regulation and that intricate ultrastructural analysis is essential to determine their localization. The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR) as the prototype OEC marker, for example, is only expressed by a minor population of neonatal rat OECs in situ. The major population carries O4-positive axonal fragments on their surface after dissociation and up-regulates p75^NTR during culturing (Wewetzer et al. in Glia 49:577–587, 2005). In the present study, we investigated whether the cell surface determinant 27C7, defined by a monoclonal antibody to Schwann cells, is also expressed by neonatal rat OECs in situ and in vitro. Primary cell suspensions of the olfactory bulb displayed 27C7 expression of both p75^NTR-negative and p75^NTR-positive OECs, while immature oligodendrocytes and astrocytes were devoid of any 27C7 labeling. This together with the finding that the intrafascicular OECs of the olfactory nerves in the mucosa expressed 27C7 but not p75^NTR, suggests that 27C7 was expressed by the entire OEC population in situ. Maintenance of OECs in the absence of olfactory neurons in organotypic slice culture up-regulated p75^NTR but did not alter 27C7 expression. It is concluded that 27C7 unlike p75^NTR is constitutively expressed by OECs and may, therefore, be a useful marker for characterization of neonatal OECs in situ and in vitro.     

Intranasal HB-EGF administration favors adult SVZ cell mobilization to demyelinated lesions in mouse corpus callosum

In the adult rodent brain, the subventricular zone (SVZ) represents a special niche for neural stem cells; these cells proliferate and generate neural progenitors. Most of these migrate along the rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb, where they differentiate into interneurons. SVZ-derived progenitors can also be recruited spontaneously to damaged brain areas to replace lost cells, including oligodendrocytes in demyelinated lesions. In this study, we searched for factors able to enhance this spontaneous recruitment of endogenous progenitors. Previous studies have suggested that epidermal growth factor (EGF) could stimulate proliferation, migration, and glial differentiation of SVZ progenitors. In the present study we examined EGF influence on endogenous SVZ cell participation to brain repair in the context of demyelinated lesions. We induced a focal demyelinated lesion in the corpus callosum by lysolecithin injection and showed that intranasal heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) administration induces a significant increase in SVZ cell proliferation together with a stronger SVZ cell mobilization toward the lesions. Besides, HB-EGF causes a shift of SVZ-derived progenitor cell differentiation toward the astrocytic lineage. However, due to the threefold increase in cell recruitment by EGF treatment, the absolute number of SVZ-derived oligodendrocytes in the lesion of treated mice is higher than in controls. These results suggest that enhancing SVZ cell proliferation could be part of future strategies to promote SVZ progenitor cell mobilization toward brain lesions.     

Cell Type- and Isotype-Specific Expression and Regulation of β-Tubulins in Primary Olfactory Ensheathing Cells and Schwann Cells In Vitro

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and Schwann cells (SCs) are closely-related cell types with regeneration-promoting properties. Comparative gene expression analysis is particularly relevant since it may explain cell type-specific effects and guide the use of each cell type into special clinical applications. In the present study, we focused on β-tubulin isotype expression in primary adult canine glia as a translational large animal model. β-tubulins so far have been studied mainly in non-neuronal tumors and implied in tumorigenic growth. We show here that primary OECs and SCs expressed βII–V isotype mRNA. Interestingly, βIII-tubulin mRNA and protein expression was high in OECs and low in SCs, while fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) induced its down-regulation in both cell types to the same extent. This was in contrast to βV-tubulin mRNA which was similarly expressed in both cell types and unaltered by FGF-2. Immunocytochemical analysis revealed that OEC cultures contained a higher percentage of βIII-tubulin-positive cells compared to SC cultures. Addition of FGF-2 reduced the number of βIII-tubulin-positive cells in both cultures and significantly increased the percentage of cells with a multipolar morphology. Taken together, we demonstrate cell type-specific expression (βIII) and isotype-specific regulation (βIII, βV) of β-tubulin isotypes in OECs and SCs. While differential expression of βIII-tubulin in primary glial cell types with identical proliferative behaviour argues for novel functions unrelated to tumorigenic growth, strong βIII-tubulin expression in OECs may help to explain the specific properties of this glial cell type.     

Clonal In Vitro Analysis of Neurotrophin Receptor p75-Immunofluorescent Cells Reveals Phenotypic Plasticity of Primary Rat Olfactory Ensheathing Cells

Clonal in vitro analysis represents a powerful tool for studying cellular differentiation. In the present study, microscope-assisted single cell transfer was combined with immunofluorescence to establish clonal cultures of identified primary rat olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs). During development, OECs originate from the neural crest, a transient population of multipotent cells. Since only neural crest cells have been analyzed at clonal density, it remained unclear whether OECs may retain multipotent features. Neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75^NTR)-immunolabelled rat OECs were seeded at clonal density under visual control using a semiautomated cell selection and transfer device (Quixell?) and emerging clones were analyzed with regard to proliferation and antigenic expression. We demonstrate that OECs from neonatal (P1) and 7 day-old (P7) but not from adult rats formed clones in the presence of OEC- and astrocyte-conditioned media (OEC-CM, A-CM). Cloning efficiency but not in vitro growth of OECs was independent of age but increased upon treatment with OEC-CM. Interestingly, about 75 % of P1 compared to 27 % of P7 OEC clones lost p75^NTR expression during 2 weeks in vitro and acquired immunoreactivity for Thy-1. The observation that primary OECs from P1 lost expression of p75^NTR at clonal density and initiated expression of the fibroblast marker Thy-1 may suggest that their developmental potential is greater than previously anticipated. Since microscope-assisted selection of immunofluorescent cells combined with semiautomated transfer guarantees monoclonality in a single step and affords selection of cells according to fluorescent label and/or morphological criteria it may be relevant for a variety of other cell types.