A Dualistic Conformational Response to Substrate Binding in the Human Serotonin Transporter Reveals a High Affinity State for Serotonin

Serotonergic neurotransmission is modulated by the membrane-embedded serotonin transporter (SERT). SERT mediates the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic neurons. Conformational changes in SERT occur upon binding of ions and substrate and are crucial for translocation of serotonin across the membrane. Our understanding of these conformational changes is mainly based on crystal structures of a bacterial homolog in various conformations, derived homology models of eukaryotic neurotransmitter transporters, and substituted cysteine accessibility method of SERT. However, the dynamic changes that occur in the human SERT upon binding of ions, the translocation of substrate, and the role of cholesterol in this interplay are not fully elucidated. Here we show that serotonin induces a dualistic conformational response in SERT. We exploited the substituted cysteine scanning method under conditions that were sensitized to detect a more outward-facing conformation of SERT. We found a novel high affinity outward-facing conformational state of the human SERT induced by serotonin. The ionic requirements for this new conformational response to serotonin mirror the ionic requirements for translocation. Furthermore, we found that membrane cholesterol plays a role in the dualistic conformational response in SERT induced by serotonin. Our results indicate the existence of a subpopulation of SERT responding differently to serotonin binding than hitherto believed and that membrane cholesterol plays a role in this subpopulation of SERT.     

1-Methylpyridinium-4-(4-phenylmethanethiosulfonate) iodide, MTS-MPP+, a novel scanning cysteine accessibility method (SCAM) reagent for monoamine transporter studies

A novel substituted cysteine accessibility method (SCAM) reagent was developed for monoamine uptake transporters. The new reagent, MTS-MPP(+), was a derivative of the neurotoxin and transporter substrate MPP(+). MTS-MPP(+) labeled cysteine residues introduced into the serotonin transporter protein. Although it did not prove to be a substrate, as is MPP(+), it appears to label cysteine residues lining the permeation pore of the transporter more readily than currently available nonspecific SCAM reagents.     

Brain region differences and some characteristics of monoamine oxidase type a and b activities in the vervet monkey

Monoamine oxidase in the vervet monkey showed greater variations in activity in six brain regions when tyramine or phenylethylamine was used as the substrate (3.8- to 4.1-fold differences) than when serotonin was the substrate (1.8-fold differences). With phenylethylamine and tyramine as substrates, the highest MAO specific activities were found in the hypothalamus and the lowest in the cerebellum and cortex. With serotonin as the substrate, the highest specific activities were in the mesencephalon and cortex. The inhibition of tyramine deamination by clorgyline and deprenyl yielded biphasic plots indicative of the presence of MAO-A and MAO-B enzyme forms in the vervet brain. On the basis of these inhibitor curves, the vervet brain could be estimated to contain approximately 85% MAO-B and 15% MAO-A, in contrast to rat brain which contains 45% MAO-B and 55% MAO-A. The inhibition of serotonin deamination by deprenyl in vervet brain yielded a biphasic plot, suggesting that some serotonin deamination in the vervet is accomplished by the MAO-B enzyme form. Estimations of the relative amounts of MAO-A and MAO-B based on inhibitor curves or based on substrate ratios yielded proportionate results which were in close agreement across the different brain regions, supporting the validity of these approaches to estimating MAO-A and MAO-B activities.     

Inhibition of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase by analogues of a synthetic peptide substrate.

Analogues of the synthetic substrate Leu-Arg-Arg-Ala-Ser-Leu-Gly in which the serine is replaced by other amino acids inhibited the activity of the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase from beef skeletal muscle (Peak I). All of the analogues were competitive with respect to peptide substrate but apparent Ki values varied depending on the particular amino acid that was substituted for serine. Inhibition was also competitive with respect to mixed histone as determined in experiments utilizing one of the analogues. Acetylation of the terminal amino group of Leu-Arg-Arg-Ala-Ser-Leu-Gly lowered the Km for this substrate from 16 micrometer to 3 micrometer, but a similar modification of the inhibitory analogue Leu-Arg-Arg-Ala-Ala-Leu-Gly resulted in no major change in the Ki value. An amount of inhibitory peptide sufficient to inhibit the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase by 90% caused less than 10% inhibition of several cyclic AMP-independent protein kinases indicating a high degree of specificity of inhibition by the peptide analogues. The experiments show that synthetic peptide analogues could be useful in identifying phosphorylation reactions catalyzed by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase as distinguished from other protein kinase reactions.     

Synthesis of substituted catechols using nitroarene dioxygenases

The nitroarene dioxygenases are in the class of Rieske iron-containing oxygenases that incorporate atmospheric oxygen into substrates via electrophilic attack on the substrate. In their native role, the nitroarene dioxygenases start degradative pathways by hydroxylating nitro-substituted, and adjacent unsubstituted carbons of nitroaromatic compounds. The reaction yields the corresponding nitro-cis-cyclohexadienediol, which is unstable and spontaneously re-aromatizes to form a catechol and nitrite. In bacterial metabolism, the specificity of the hydroxylation determines subsequent steps in degradation pathways. Experiments were done to find whether the specificity could be exploited to direct the hydroxylation of multiply substituted aromatic substrates and thereby produce novel catechols. Recombinant strains carrying genes for nitroarene dioxygenases were used for transformation of various substituted nitroaromatic compounds. The reactions were analyzed using HPLC to track substrate consumption and product formation, then GC–MS and NMR to identify the reaction products. A number of substituted catechols were obtained using the recombinant biocatalysts. The nitro-substituted carbon was the primary site for dioxygenase hydroxylation. When substrates included nitro and halogen substituents, the halogen-substituted positions were also targeted, but less frequently than the nitro-substituted site. The production of catechols was limited in batch fermentations, likely due to toxicity of the quinones that result from air oxidation of catechols. The nitroarene dioxygenases will serve as catalysts for direct synthesis of highly substituted catechols, however, the reaction conditions must be engineered to overcome product toxicity and allow sustained accumulation of catecholic products.     

Membrane cholesterol modulates serotonin transporter activity

The synaptic actions of the neurotransmitter serotonin are terminated by a selective high-affinity reuptake mediated by the serotonin transporter (SERT). To gain insight into the modulation of the functional properties of this integral membrane protein by cholesterol, a main component of the lipid bilayer, we stably expressed the rat SERT in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and, upon altering the cholesterol content of these cells by different means, analyzed SERT activity. Depletion of the level of membrane cholesterol by treatment with either the cholesterol chelating agent methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD), cholesterol oxidase, or the cholesterol-binding fluorochrome filipin resulted in a decrease in SERT activity due to both a loss of affinity of substrate and ligand binding and a concomitant reduction of the maximal transport rate. In cholesterol-depleted membranes, cholesterol levels could be restored to those found in untreated membranes by incubation of the membranes with an MbetaCD-cholesterol complex, which correlated with a reversal of the cholesterol depletion-mediated decrease in the level of high-affinity binding. This was not the case when other steroids, such as ergosterol, 5-cholestene, or pregnenolone, were substituted into cholesterol-depleted membranes. These results suggest that membrane cholesterol modulates the functional properties of the SERT by specific molecular interactions which are needed to stabilize the transporter in its optimally active form.     

林生山黧豆中2,4—二氨基丁酸合成代谢的体外酶学研究

用~3H-天门冬氨酸为底物,林生山黧豆(Lathyrus sylvestris L.)叶片匀浆上清液为粗酶液,进行体外反应。结果表明,天门冬氨酸的放射性掺入到2,4-二氨基丁酸,加入谷氨酸则能抑制这种掺入。将上述粗酶液透析,加入可能的辅助因子,天门冬氨酸的放射性也掺入到2,4-二氨基丁酸。研究证实在体外天门冬氨酸可以作为2,4-二基丁酸合成的底物,在林生山黧豆体内存在催化天门冬氨酸转变为2,4-二氨基丁酸的合成酶(系)。以2,4-二氨基丁酸和γ-氨基丁酸为底物,用氨基酸自动分析仪测定产物含量,结果表明,2,4-二氨基丁酸和γ-氨基丁酸不互相转变。     

In Vitro Enzymological Studies on Anabolism of 2,4-diaminobutyric Acid in Lathyrus sylvestris

An in vitro synthetic reaction system was established with 2,3-3H-aspartic acid (Asp) as a substrate and the homogenate of fiatpea ( Lathyrus sylvestris L. ) leaves as the crude enzyme extract. The results showed that 3H-Asp was incorporated into 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DABA). The incorporation was inhibited by the addition of glutamic acid (Glu). 3H-Asp was also incorporated into DABA after the cmde enzyme was dialyzed, indicating that Asp as a substrate for DABA synthesis was catalyzed by a group of enzymes which converted Asp to DABA in flatpea. From the in vitro reactions it was proved that DABA and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) could not be mutually substituted as substrates.     

Trp-262 is a key residue for the hydrolytic and transglucosidic reactivity of the Aspergillus niger family 3 beta-glucosidase: substitution results in enzymes with mainly transglucosidic activity

Trp-262 of the Aspergillus niger family 3 beta-glucosidase is shown in this report to be a key residue for determining the ratio of this enzyme's hydrolytic and transglucosidic activities. TLC showed that when cellobiose was both the substrate and the acceptor, beta-glucosidases with substitutions (Phe, Ala, Leu, and Cys) for Trp-262 formed very high amounts of transglucosidic adducts. When pNPGlc was the substrate and the acceptor of the substituted beta-glucosidases, only transglucosidic adducts and pNP were produced. Little or no Glc could be detected, indicating that the reactions occurring were mainly transglucosidic. GLC studies with cellobiose quantitatively showed that one Glc was transferred for each free Glc produced. Since this is the maximum level of transglucosidation possible, this again showed that the reaction is predominantly transglucosidic. Analyses of the K(m) and K(i) values of cello-oligosaccharides of increasing length, of the K(i) values of Glc and of the transglucosidic activity at low acceptor concentration, showed that substitution for Trp-262 causes poor binding at the binding site for the non-reducing Glc of the substrate while the affinity for other Glc units is only minimally affected. The acceptor sites become saturated with substrate (acceptor) at the concentrations needed for glucosidic bond cleavage and thus only transglucosidic reactions occur. In addition, the data indicate that substitution for Trp-262 causes the rate of the hydrolysis step (k(3)) to be small.     

Synergism between substrate and non-substrate thiols in peroxidase-oxidase reactions

Cysteamine and reduced glutathione were shown to act synergistically as peroxidase-oxidase substrates as measured by oxygen consumption and Nitro Blue Tetrazolium reduction. Cysteine methyl ester could be substituted for cysteamine and N-acetylcysteine and penicillamine could be substituted for glutathione. The involvement of reduced oxygen species and the effects of pH and chloride were studied. A possible mechanism of peroxidase-oxidase oxidation of cysteamine and glutathione is proposed. These studies show that peroxidase oxidase reactions can occur with close to physiological concentrations of peroxidase and thiols.     

Effect of Chronic Corn Consumption on Serotonin Content of Rat Brain

SEROTONIN, a putative neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system, is synthesized in the brain by the 5-hydroxylation and decarboxylation of the essential amino-acid L-tryptophan^1,2. The control of serotonin biosynthesis seems to involve a different mechanism from that responsible for catecholamine biosynthesis^3,4 in its dependence on the availability of the amino-acid precursor^5,6. Thus, small doses of tryptophan that do not increase brain or plasma tryptophan concentrations beyond their normal daily ranges cause significant increases in the serotonin concentration of rat brain⁷. Conversely, the chronic ingestion of diets lacking in tryptophan (with casein hydrolysates or amino-acid mixtures substituted for natural proteins) depresses brain serotonin levels^8–10. The dependence of serotonin biosynthesis on tryptophan availability probably arises from the unusually high substrate K _M that characterizes tryptophan hydroxylase¹. It seems likely that this enzyme normally functions in an unsaturated state; hence physiological increases in intraneuronal tryptophan could drive the hydroxylation of the amino-acid and, ultimately, its conversion to serotonin.     

Characterization of covalent Ene adduct intermediates in "hydride equivalent" transfers in a dihydropyridine model for NADH reduction reactions

A study of the reactions of an NADH model, 1,4-di(trimethylsilyl)-1,4-dihydropyridine, 7, with a series of α,β-unsaturated cyano and carbonyl compounds has produced the first direct evidence for an obligatory covalent adduct between a dihydropyridine and substrate in a reduction reaction. The reactions were monitored by NMR spectroscopy. In all reactions studied, the covalent adduct was the first new species detected and its decomposition to form products could be observed. Concentrations of adducts were sufficiently high at steady-state that their structures could be determined directly from NMR spectra of the reaction mixtures; adduct structures are those expected from an Ene reaction between 7 and the substrate. This first reaction step results in transfer of the C(4) hydrogen nucleus of 7 to the substrate and formation of a covalent bond between C(2) of the dihydropyridine ring and the substrate α-atom. Discovery of these Ene-adduct intermediates completes the spectrum of mechanisms observed in NADH model reactions to span those with free radical intermediates, no detectable intermediates and now covalent intermediates. The geometry of the transition state for formation of the Ene adduct is compared with those of theoretical transition state models and crystal structures of enzyme-substrate/inhibitor complexes to suggest a relative orientation for the dihydropyridine ring and the substrate in an initial cyclic transition state that is flexible enough to accommodate all observed mechanistic outcomes.     

Catalytical properties of liver monoamine oxidases of the Commander squid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Berryteuthis magister</Emphasis> from various habitation zones

There has been performed kinetic analysis of enzymatic reactions of deamination of tyramine, tryptamine, serotonin, benzylamine, β-phenylethylamine, and histamine under action of liver monoamine oxidase (MAO) of the Commander squid Berryteuthis magister from various habitation zones in the Bering and Japan Seas. A substrate inhibition by high concentrations of all studied substrates has been revealed, which seems to indicate mutual effect of various MAO forms present in liver of the studied squids. Analysis of kinetic parameters of enzymatic reactions of deamination of six studied substrates and the substrate-inhibitory analysis with use of two derivatives of acridine and deprenyl indicate the enzyme heterogeneity, the presence of at least two MAO-A forms, and the absence of intraspecies differences in MAO of the Commander squids from various habitation zones. The most active was the MAO form responsible for serotonin deamination. There were obtained quantitative difference in substrate specificity and reaction ability with respect to inhibitor of proflavin for the liver MAO of the Commander and Pacific squids.     

Ultrastructural studies of endocrine cell populations showing an argentaffin reaction and/or serotonin immunoreactivity in the rat antral mucosa

Summary On the basis of staining results in closely related semi-thin sections from rat antral mucosa immunostained with polyclonal serotonin antibodies and silver-stained for the argentaffin reaction, respectively, three different cell populations could be distinguished. One of these cell populations showed both serotonin immunoreactivity and an argentaffin reaction, a second one serotonin immunoreactivity alone, and a third one only an argentaffin reaction.These cell populations were studied electron microscopically in ultra-thin sections located between the stained semi-thin sections. The cell population displaying an agentaffin reaction and serotonin immunoreactivity showed secretory granules of the enterochromaffin cell type. A similar granular appearance was observed in cells which only exhibited an argentaffin reaction. Serotonin immunoreactivity in the absence of an argentaffin reaction was evident in some G (gastrin) cells. and in some D₁ and possibly also some D (somatostatin) cells; but not all the endocrine cells of the non-enterochromaffin type displayed serotonin immunoreactivity. The significance of the different reactions in the three cell populations is discussed.     

Structural determinants of species-selective substrate recognition in human and Drosophila serotonin transporters revealed through computational docking studies

To identify potential determinants of substrate selectivity in serotonin (5-HT) transporters (SERT), models of human and Drosophila serotonin transporters (hSERT, dSERT) were built based on the leucine transporter (LeuT(Aa)) structure reported by Yamashita et al. (Nature 2005;437:215-223), PBDID 2A65. Although the overall amino acid identity between SERTs and the LeuT(Aa) is only 17%, it increases to above 50% in the first shell of the putative 5-HT binding site, allowing de novo computational docking of tryptamine derivatives in atomic detail. Comparison of hSERT and dSERT complexed with substrates pinpoints likely structural determinants for substrate binding. Forgoing the use of experimental transport and binding data of tryptamine derivatives for construction of these models enables us to critically assess and validate their predictive power: A single 5-HT binding mode was identified that retains the amine placement observed in the LeuT(Aa) structure, matches site-directed mutagenesis and substituted cysteine accessibility method (SCAM) data, complies with support vector machine derived relations activity relations, and predicts computational binding energies for 5-HT analogs with a significant correlation coefficient (R = 0.72). This binding mode places 5-HT deep in the binding pocket of the SERT with the 5-position near residue hSERT A169/dSERT D164 in transmembrane helix 3, the indole nitrogen next to residue Y176/Y171, and the ethylamine tail under residues F335/F327 and S336/S328 within 4 A of residue D98. Our studies identify a number of potential contacts whose contribution to substrate binding and transport was previously unsuspected.     

Effect of serotonin and acetylcholine on the electrical activity of isolated cortex in the rabbit

Neuronal isolation of the rabbit's cerebral hemisphere shifts the EEG spectrum in direction of slower processes. Application of acetylcholine on the cortex elicits EEG activation and appearance of the theta-rhythm. Initially serotonin application is accompanied by the appearance of the theta-rhythm periods; in the process of subsequent administration of the drug these periods are gradually substituted by slow delta-waves. Combined application of serotonin and acetylcholine on isolated cortex elicits bursts of high-amplitude activity, abruptly substituted by "silence" phases. In contrast to the intact cortex where serotonin elicited prolonged and rhythmic alternation on EEG of phases of high-amplitude activity and of "silence" periods, in the isolated cortex the bursts of activity of about 1 min duration appeared only after application of the acetylcholine to serotonin-saturated cortex. Repeated phases of activation were either absent or were of short duration and extinguished rapidly.     

A modified enzymatic-isotopic microassay for serotonin (5HT) using 5HT-N-acetyltransferase partially purified from Drosophila

Serotonin-N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.5), partially purified from $\text{Drosophila}$$\text{melanogaster}$ (DNAT) was substituted for rat liver enzyme (RNAT) in a previously published radioenzymatic assay for serotonin (5HT). The purpose was to determine if this modification would increase the sensitivity and reliability of the original assay. Compared with RNAT, DNAT is 3–4 times more active; it lacks secondary 5HTP decarboxylase activity; and it is more stable. Under conditions of the modified assay, the only radioactive product formed from hypothalamic tissue extracts is ³H-melatonin; which can be measured from as little as 15 pg of serotonin substrate. Thus, substitution of DNAT for RNAT improves the original radioenzymatic assay allowing measurement of endogenous 5HT in hypothalamic nuclei from individual animals.     

Modulating the midpoint potential of the [4Fe-4S] cluster of the nitrogenase Fe protein

Protein-bound [FeS] clusters function widely in biological electron-transfer reactions, where their midpoint potentials control both the kinetics and thermodynamics of these reactions. The polarity of the protein environment around [FeS] clusters appears to contribute largely to modulating their midpoint potentials, with local protein dipoles and water dipoles largely defining the polarity. The function of the [4Fe-4S] cluster containing Fe protein in nitrogenase catalysis is, at least in part, to serve as the nucleotide-dependent electron donor to the MoFe protein which contains the sites for substrate binding and reduction. The ability of the Fe protein to function in this manner is dependent on its ability to adopt the appropriate conformation for productive interaction with the MoFe protein and on its ability to change redox potentials to provide the driving force required for electron transfer. Phenylalanine at position 135 is located near the [4Fe-4S] cluster of nitrogenase Fe protein and has been suggested by amino acid substitution studies to participate in defining both the midpoint potential and the nucleotide-induced changes in the [4Fe-4S] cluster. In the present study, the crystal structure of the Azotobacter vinelandii nitrogenase Fe protein variant having phenylalanine at position 135 substituted by tryptophan has been determined by X-ray diffraction methods and refined to 2.4 A resolution. A comparison of available Fe protein structures not only provides a structural basis for the more positive midpoint potential observed in the tryptophan substituted variant but also suggests a possible general mechanism by which the midpoint potential could be controlled by nucleotide interactions and nitrogenase complex formation.     

Ligand Induced Conformational Changes of the Human Serotonin Transporter Revealed by Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The competitive inhibitor cocaine and the non-competitive inhibitor ibogaine induce different conformational states of the human serotonin transporter. It has been shown from accessibility experiments that cocaine mainly induces an outward-facing conformation, while the non-competitive inhibitor ibogaine, and its active metabolite noribogaine, have been proposed to induce an inward-facing conformation of the human serotonin transporter similar to what has been observed for the endogenous substrate, serotonin. The ligand induced conformational changes within the human serotonin transporter caused by these three different types of ligands, substrate, non-competitive and competitive inhibitors, are studied from multiple atomistic molecular dynamics simulations initiated from a homology model of the human serotonin transporter. The results reveal that diverse conformations of the human serotonin transporter are captured from the molecular dynamics simulations depending on the type of the ligand bound. The inward-facing conformation of the human serotonin transporter is reached with noribogaine bound, and this state resembles a previously identified inward-facing conformation of the human serotonin transporter obtained from molecular dynamics simulation with bound substrate, but also a recently published inward-facing conformation of a bacterial homolog, the leucine transporter from Aquifex Aoelicus. The differences observed in ligand induced behavior are found to originate from different interaction patterns between the ligands and the protein. Such atomic-level understanding of how an inhibitor can dictate the conformational response of a transporter by ligand binding may be of great importance for future drug design.     

Alpha-ethyltryptamines as dual dopamine–serotonin releasers

The dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), and norepinephrine (NE) transporter releasing activity and serotonin-2A (5-HT_2A) receptor agonist activity of a series of substituted tryptamines are reported. Three compounds, 7b, (+)-7d and 7f, were found to be potent dual DA/5-HT releasers and were >10-fold less potent as NE releasers. Additionally, these compounds had different activity profiles at the 5-HT_2A receptor. The unique combination of dual DA/5-HT releasing activity and 5-HT_2A receptor activity suggests that these compounds could represent a new class of neurotransmitter releasers with therapeutic potential.