Change in the character of directional motor reactions of female crickets <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus argetinus</Emphasis> Sauss. to intraspecies signals under conditions of sensory pathology at different stages of imaginal ontogenesis

The character of motor activity of female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. executing reproductive and defense behavior was studied under normal conditions and under conditions of inactivation of the cercal organ at different stages of imaginal ontogeny (on day 2, 7 and 12). Various forms of motor reactions of females placed on a movable spherical support to models of intraspecies calling and aggressive male signals were described and analyzed. Reversible inactivation of cercal receptors was shown to result in disturbance of the mechanisms of realization of normal reproductive behavior at the end of pre-reproductive and in the beginning of reproductive periods of imaginal ontogeny. It is manifested as statistically significant reduction of the proportion of positive phonotactic reactions in response to a model of the male calling song in animals with experimental sensory pathology as compared to control groups of crickets (the norm). No significant differences in proportions of typical directional motor reactions to presentation of the aggressive signal under normal conditions and under conditions of sensory pathology were found. Thus preservation of the tympanic organ was demonstrated to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for realization of adequate acoustic reproductive behavior. Only working together, distant mechanoreceptor systems (the cercal and tympanic ones) are able to provide adequacy of behavior. This conclusion confirmed the proposed earlier hypothesis about interaction of distant mechanoreceptor systems and about existence of an integrated sensory complex necessary for realization of adequate behavior of insects.     

Development of sex and protective behavior of female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. at preproductive and reproductive periods of adult ontogenesis

The work presents data on reproductive and protective behavior of non-copulative female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. at the beginning of adult ontogenesis. There is studied character of interaction of females with "virtual" males (the method of "trackball". The forms of female motor reactions are described and characterized in the model of male intraspecies signals--the call and aggressive ones. The character of development of female acoustic behavior is described by a change in the motor reaction forms in the course of adult ontogenesis. It is shown that at once after moulting the reproductive behavior on adults has not yet been formed, but is maturing gradually for several days. The passive protective behavior was established to be the most expressed at the initial stages of adult ontogenesis.     

Modes of cooperation during territorial defense by African lions

Cooperation during territorial defense allows social groups of African lions to defend access to resources necessary for individual reproductive success. Some forms of cooperation will be dependent upon cognition: reciprocity places greater cognitive demands on participants than does kinship or mutualism. Lions have well-developed cognitive abilities that enable individuals to recognize and interact with others in ways that seem to enhance their inclusive fitness. Male lions appear to cooperate unconditionally, consistently responding to roaring intruders regardless of their male companions’ kinship or behavior. Female lions, however, do keep track of the past behavior of their female companions, apparently using the reliability of a companion as one means of assessing the risks posed by approaching intruders. Some “laggard” females may exploit the cooperative tendencies of “leaders” during territorial encounters. Although leader females clearly recognize laggards as such, the costs of tolerating laggards may be less than the benefits leaders gain through territorial defense behavior. Thus, although lions clearly have the cognitive ability to base cooperation on reciprocity, territorial defense cooperation appears instead to be based primarily on mutual benefits to participants for both male and female lions.     

Social organization and reproductive behavior of ostraciid fishes from Japan and the Western Atlantic Ocean

Social organization and reproductive behavior were studied in 4 species of ostraciid fishes.Lactoria fornasini andLactoria diaphana from Japan andAcanthostracion polygonius from the western Atlsnyiv were usually found in single male, haremic social groups, although the latter 2 species usually included only 2 females per harem, and individuals in all 3 species foraged solitarily. Elements of both “resource defense” and “female defense” (Emlen & Oring 1977) were evident in the 2Lactoria species, and female defense appeared particularly intense inL. diaphana. Resource defense was apparent inA. polygonius. Lactophrys triquetor occurred in lek-like breeding assemblages at Curacao (Netherlands Antilles) and on the Atlantic coast of Panama. These variations in social organization are discussed and a relationship with feeding habits is suggested. All 4 species appear to be gonochores (demonstrated inLactoria by Moyer 1979). The 2Lactoria spp. showed operational sex ratios (OSR: Emlen & Oring 1977) approaching 1∶1 and a high degree of female spawning synchrony. The occurrence of polygyny in species with 1∶1 OSRs and female spawning synchrony is discussed with reference to the Knowlton (1979) model which predicts monogamy to occur in such situations.     

Pollination biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Disanthus cercidifolius</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">longipes</Emphasis>, an endemic and endangered plant in China

Disanthus cercidifolius Maxim. var. longipes H.T. Chang usually has two inflorescences growing in opposite directions in the axillae, but occasionally three inflorescences grow paratactically. The typical flowering process could be divided into 4 periods: “Pre-dehiscence”, “Initial dehiscence”, “Full dehiscence” and “Withering”. Both the natural population and the planted population had a flowering peak of 15–35 days after the first flower bloomed. There were significant differences between the time courses of flowering of the two populations. Out-crossing is the main breeding system in this species. And autogamy decreases the risk of reproductive failure of this species. The main insect pollinators of D. cercidifolius var. longipes are Episyrphus balteatus de Geer, Scaptodrosophila coracina Kikkawa and Peng, Polistes olivaceus de Geer, Apis cerana Fabricius, Nezara viridula L. and Coccinella septempunctata L., and so on. Among the insects, S. coracina and E. balteatus are the most important and efficient pollinators, but others are inefficient pollinators. Though wind pollination is not efficient, it guarantees reproduction when insect pollinators are not available. “Mass flowering” is an adaptive behavior and reproductive strategy of this species, and “few fruiting” could be caused by the lack of pollinators.     

Allometric Effects of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agriophyllum squarrosum</Emphasis> in Response to Soil Nutrients,Water, and Population Density in the Horqin Sandy Land of China

We monitored the allometric effects for greenhouse-grown Agriophyllum squarrosum plants in response to variations in population density and the availability of soil nutrients and water. Biomass allocations were size-dependent. The plasticity of roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive effort was “true” in response to changes in nutrient content. At a low level of soil minerals, plants allocated more resources to the development of roots and reproductive organs than to leaves, but data for stem allocations were consistent for tradeoffs between the effects of nutrients and plant size. The plasticities of leaf allocation and reproductive effort were “true” whereas those of root and stem allocations were “apparent” in response to fluctuations in soil water, being a function of plant size. Decreasing soil water content was associated with higher leaf allocation and lower reproductive effort. Except for this “apparent” plasticity of leaf allocation, none was detected with population density on biomass allocation. Architectural traits were determinants of the latter. For roots, the determining trait was the ratio of plant height to total biomass; for stems and reproduction, plant height; and for leaves, the ratio of branch numbers to plant height.     

Larva-adult relationships in an ancestral dipteran: A re-examination of sensillar pathways across the antenna and leg anlagen of Chaoborus crystallinus (DeGeer, 1776; Chaoboridae)

 In one of his classical studies on insect metamorphosis, Weismann compared the imaginal anlagen of the ancestral phantom midge, Chaoborus, with those of advanced brachycerans. We have expanded his findings on the relationships between larval and imaginal organs using electron microscopy and cobalt backfilling of the antenna and leg anlagen and the axonal trajectories of corresponding larval sensilla. We show that both primordia are confluent with the larval antennae and ”leg” sensilla (an ancestral Keilin organ), respectively. These fully developed larval organs represent the distal tips of the imaginal anlagen rather than separate cell clusters. The axons of the larval antenna and leg sensilla project across the corresponding anlagen to their target neuromeres within the central nervous system (CNS). Within the discs, nerves composed of these larval axons, developing afferent fibres and efferences ascending from the CNS are found. Both the structure of the primordia and the axonal trajectories thus relate the situation found in advanced brachycerans with that seen in more ancestral insects. In addition, the larval antennae, legs, wings and even the eyes possess very similar afferent pioneer trajectories supporting the idea that the described pattern is generally used in the ontogeny of sensory systems. Received: 30 June 1998 / Accepted: 27 September 1998     

Incipient morphological castes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes gallicus</Emphasis> (Vespidae,Hymenoptera)

The occurrence of a pre-imaginal caste determination represents a sort of “point of no return” to eusociality. In some social insect taxa, including Polistes species, the occurrence of distinct queen and worker castes is still debated. Before this report, no clear morphological differences between reproductive and non-reproductive individuals were known. Here we show that several pre-imaginal morphological differences of the Van der Vecht organ occur between foundresses (queens) and workers. Geometric morphometrics revealed that queens are characterized by shape deformations of this organ, which is responsible for a typical allometric growth of the secretory area. This organ is predicted to be larger in foundresses compared to workers because its secretion is involved in defense against ants, in nestmate recognition and in preventing workers from challenging for direct reproduction. The results presented here indicate the existence of an incipient morphological caste determination Polistes gallicus and suggest that this species may have passed the “point of no return” for eusociality.     

A quantum model for controlled enzymic reactions: II. Controlled biochemical networks

Two control units, the switching and the two factor discriminating net are described. They are derived as a consequence of the enzymic oscillatory behavior induced by substrate “perturbation”. A complex network encompassing long sequences of metabolic reactions is constructed and the organization of cellular metabolic activities in well defined “regimes” and “states” inferred.     

Reproduction and development in the dwarf form of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus from Lake Davatchan, Transbaikalia

Biological characteristics in the deepwater dwarf form of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus from Lake Davatchan, Transbaikalia, are described. In nine from fifteen attempts of artificial insemination of eggs from a female by sperm from a male, developing eggs are obtained. Embryonic and larval development is described at the initial temperature 1.6–3.6°C and subsequent (from early gastrulation to the transition of larvae to exogenous feeding) average temperature 4.4 and 8.6°C. To take into account the data obtained previously (Pavlov et al., 1990, 1993b), the comparison of early ontogeny is conducted between the dwarf and small forms of charr from Lake Davatchan and the charr from Lake Leprindokan (two lakes are separated by the ridge 8 km in width). A substantial similarity in early ontogeny between the dwarf and small forms of charr from Lake Davatchan suggests that genes controlling development of the embryos and prelarvae until the transition of the young to exogenous feeding have not been subjected to natural selection determining a considerable differentiation between two forms and their reproductive isolation. Published in Voprosy Ikhtiologii, 2008, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 102–119. The article was translated by the author.     

Socio-maternal behaviors in response to an infant birth inColobus guereza

A number of social behaviors were observed in a captive troop ofColobus guereza on a regular basis for eight months. These included clasping and related behaviors, forward mounts, rear mounts, presents, troop positions during rest periods, infant transfers and attempted transfers, play, and grooming. During the observation period two significant events occurred: a re-introduction of a mother and her juvenile female, and the birth of an infant to a resident female. These events caused an increase in certain adult behaviors indicating a relationship of them with similar behaviors done between mothers and infants. This similarity seemed to indicate the co-evolution of “maternal” behaviors for use in adult social interactions and the phenomenon of infant transfer or sharing. The maternal and socio-maternal behaviors and their infantile precursors are then discussed in relation to the ontogeny of behavioral forms, the ontogeny of motivation in such behaviors, and the idea of infantile regression during development and in adult life.     

Salt tolerance in Lycopersicon spp. VII. Pleiotropic action of genes controlling earliness on fruit yield

 The change from vegetative to reproductive development (earliness) in Lycopersicon chesmannii line L2 was delayed for 20 weeks when compared to other Lycopersicon species under greenhouse conditions. The interspecific hybrid of L. chesmannii L2 and L. esculentum E9, a cherry tomato cultivar, also showed this delay in reproductive development. The distribution of this character in the F₂-derived population showed a bimodal shape, plants could be scored easily as “early” or “late” in two nutrient conditions (optimum and high salinity). A QTL with major effects on earliness was detected in salinity, which explained 35.6% of the phenotypic variation. The effect of this QTL greatly diminished under control conditions, indicating differences in the genetic control of earliness between treatments. ACC synthase or phytochrome B2 are the products of candidate genes for such a major QTL. Other QTLs with minor effects, and epistatic interactions, are also involved in earliness under both conditions. A “late” F₂ subpopulation yielded twice as much as an “early” F₂; conversely, “early” plants were taller than “late” plants, regardless of the treatment. QTL analysis, carried out in both subpopulations, showed that yield differences may be explained by chesmannii alleles showing negative additive effects at some QTLs only in the “early” subpopulation. The effect of population subdivision on QTL analysis was investigated by computer simulations to show sample-size or random effects; thus, important pleiotropic or regulatory effects of genes controlling earliness on yield that affect QTL analysis, have been reveiled. Therefore alleles controlling earliness in L. chesmannii have to be taken into account for a more efficient utilization of the genetic resources of this species. Received: 30 June 1998 / Accepted: 31 August 1998     

Study on high-temperature-resistant and high-yield <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laminaria</Emphasis> variety “Rongfu”

Hybridization of gametophytes, continuous self-crossing and targeted selection were utilized to breed a new Laminaria variety. After five-generation selection breeding, the new variety “Rongfu” was obtained. Its male parent “Yuanza No.10” was the high-yield cultivation variety, and its female parent was variety “Fujian” which could tolerate relatively high seawater temperature. “Yuanza No.10” and “Fujian” were different but complement in their morphological characteristics and biological habits. Variety “Rongfu” was bred through their hybridization which exhibited high-yield potential and high seawater temperature tolerance. The results of traits evaluation in consecutive years showed that “Rongfu” attained higher yields by 24–27% compared to the control (widely used commercial variety) and also contained considerable amounts of iodine, mannitol, and algin. When seawater temperature was 18–21°C, the blade growth of “Rongfu” was maintained and tissue loss by abrasion was significantly lower than the control. Since the adoption of variety “Rongfu” in 2001, its cultivation areas have been extended to Shandong, Fujian and Guangdong province and have reached 14,133 ha currently, i.e., almost one-tenth of the total cultivation areas of Laminaria in China. The results of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA analysis showed that the relationship between “Rongfu” and other cultivation varieties in China was very close.     

Mate preferences in female canaries (Serinus canaria) within a breeding season

Divorce and remating in birds can be described as strategies used to enhance reproductive success. Mate switching often occurs because pairs failed to brood at least one chick during the previous breeding season. In the present study, we evaluated the influence of reproductive success on female preferences in domesticated canaries (Serinus canaria). For that purpose, females previously paired and having reared young were placed in a choice test situation: They were allowed to choose between their previous mate and a familiar male (a male neighbor during the breeding period). During these choice tests, females tended to stay near their previous mate longer than near a male neighbor when their reproductive success was “good” (at least two chicks). On the other hand, females with “poor” reproductive success (one chick) did not show a preference for their previous mate. Furthermore, in the present study, we observed that during choice tests males reacted to the presence of their previous mate in a particular way, by gathering nest material. This behavior was more scarcely observed in neighbor males which, on the contrary, sang significantly more than previous mates did.     

Responses of wild chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii</Emphasis>) toward seismic aftershocks in the Mahale Mountains National Park,Tanzania

This is the first report documenting the responses of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) to seismic activities. During our long-term fieldwork in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, a high-intensity earthquake with a Richter magnitude of 6.8 occurred at 15:19 hours local time on 5 December 2005. During the main tremor, the chimpanzees displayed the “wraa” call, “scream,” and “pant bark” or “bark” vocalizations. Many mild aftershocks followed the main tremor, and the wild chimpanzees displayed a variety of responses to these. In several cases, they climbed trees or stopped activities such as grooming, moving, and feeding. These responses are similar to those previously reported in nonhuman primates. During the observations, a unique behavior, one never reported before was exhibited by a female chimpanzee. She placed her right palm on the ground giving the impression she was inspecting the trembling of the ground.     

Suggestions for a mathematical biophysics of some psychoses

We may consider that most of the human behavior is a set of learned responses to certain patterns which recur frequently in the course of human life. Some “abnormal” events or experiences may result in the learning of abnormal responses, and thus in abnormal behavior. The “abnormal” responses may begin to be learned after some of the normal response patterns have been fairly well established. The development of both normal and abnormal behavior may thus be represented by learning curves of the type studied by H. D. Landahl. Applying some of the results of the theory of learning curves and considering that the normal and abnormal reactions may reciprocally inhibit each other, a quantitative theory of some psychoses may be developed. In particular, the effects of shock may be deduced from the assumption that they cause the more recently learned abnormal reactions to be “unlearned” more readily, than the earlier learned “normal” reactions. The effectiveness of shock treatments as a function of the duraction of psychosis is discussed from this point of view.     

Genetic variation among populations of the endangered fan mussel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinna nobilis</Emphasis> (Mollusca: Bivalvia) along the Tunisian coastline

The Mediterranean fan mussel Pinna nobilis is an endangered invertebrate due to overexploitation and habitat deterioration. In this species, two distinctive morphs, the “combed” and “straight and wide” forms, have been recorded and it is not known whether this morphometric variability is attributed to genetic or environmental factors. In this study, we used mitochondrial COI sequences to describe the genetic variability of five Pinna nobilis populations sampled along the northern, eastern, and southern Tunisian coastline, and to examine whether there is a genetic differentiation between the two forms of this species. DNA sequences of 675 bp from the mitochondrial COI gene have revealed 10 different haplotypes among 49 examined specimens. Haplotype diversity was high, ranging between 0.40441 and 0.80952, and showed a decreasing North-East gradient, which seems to be explained by the hydrogeography of the study area. The mitochondrial COI marker did not suggest a genetic distinctiveness between the two Pinna nobilis shell forms, “combed” and “straight and wide”. Although the morphometric plasticity of the fan mussel could be due to the influence of environmental factors, further genetic studies using nuclear markers are envisaged to investigate whether this differentiation is associated to gene flow restrictions.     

Growth and reproduction in higher plants I. Theoretical analysis by mathematical models

To analyse the whole life of higher plants, an attempt was made to describe their growth and reproduction by mathematical models based on the elements determining matter production and economy of the matter. A plant body was regarded as a compound system of two parts; “productive part” and “reproductive part”. A parameter (reproductive index) was introduced to connect these two parts, and a set of the mathematical models describing the quantitative growth of these two parts were established. Two basic patterns of reproduction in higher plants were distinguished into “D-reproduction” and “I-reproduction”. The state of matter production of the mother plant determined an initial size of the daughter plant in theD-reproduction, while, in theI-reproduction, it did not determine the initial size of the daughter, but determined the number of propagules. The model of each reproduction pattern was also constructed. A formula determining the initial size of a plant in a given generation was constructed as the model of theD-reproduction. The model for theI-reproduction described the number of propagules produced in a given generation. Some aspects of the plant life, e.g. the optimum reproductive index, the switch-over time from the vegetative to the reproductive growth phase, the seed number, types of expansive reproduction, were theoretically analysed and discussed under these mathematical models.     

The functions of status in the mantled howler monkey,Alouatta palliata Gray: Intraspecific competition for group membership in a folivorous neotropical primate

In the dominance hierarchies of adult male and female mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata Gray), high-ranking individuals are young adults; intermediate-ranking individuals, middle-aged adults; and low-ranking individuals, old adults. This relationship reverses the trend observed in most group-living animals and is previously unreported for this species. A limiting supply of palatable leaves may create intense intraspecific competition for group membership which, it is hypothesized, has resulted in this rare pattern of hierarchical relations. It is shown that individual-level selection is sufficient to explain the evolution of this apparently “altruistic” status system, though other mechanisms are assessed. The energetic constraints imposed by a folivorous diet appear to restrict the expression of aggression to “ritualized” forms. Two groups of monkeys in two different habitats were studied and the rates of appeasement and aggressive behavior were found to be higher in the more “stressful” forest. The latter group, however, displays significantly more behavioral patterns entailing low or intermediate energy expenditure.     

“Girney” vocalizations among Japanese macaque females: Context and function

One vocalization in the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) system of communication is the “girney.” Previous studies indicated that the “girney” is used for short range communication and that it tends to occur when subordinate animals approach and groom dominant ones and when females without infants approach females who have infants. Data were collected on the social behavior of adult female Japanese monkeys of the Arashiyama-A troop in Texas in order to test those results. The study indicates that “girneys” are the most frequently occurring vocalizations of females during and following the birth season and that they occur primarily in two contexts. Those are the proximity of a female to another female with a new infant and the proximity of a lower ranking animal to a higher ranking one. The contexts are ones in which the risk of aggression is high, and the “girneys” appear to function as appeasement gestures to reduce the risk.