Psychological Mechanisms Predicting Wellbeing in Pet Owners: Rogers’ Core Conditions versus Bowlby’s Attachment

While pet ownership may confer physical and psychological health benefits, existing research presents inconsistent findings, and the psychological mechanisms through which health benefits might be conferred are unknown. Exploring human–pet relationships from the perspectives of Bowlby’s attachment theory, namely “attachment-related anxiety” and “attachment-related avoidance,” and Rogers’ core conditions including “unconditional positive regard” and “empathy” may highlight the psychological mechanisms involved. This study compared quality of life (QOL) and psychopathology in pet owners with those without pets. In the pet owners, we additionally assessed pet attachment, and perceived empathy, unconditionality, and congruence in the human–pet relationships. We then compared the relative value of Bowlby’s attachment versus Rogers’ core conditions in human– pet relationships as predictors of wellbeing in pet owners. Overall, pet owners and non-pet owners did not significantly differ in terms of QOL or psychopathology. However, in pet owners, secure pet attachments were associated with lower psychological distress and psychopathology, and those perceiving higher levels of Rogers’ core conditions from their pets had higher QOL. Bowlby’s pet attachment insecurity predicted psychological distress and psychopathology, while Rogers’ total core conditions in pets were significantly predictive of QOL of owners. Differences in wellbeing may not be reliably discernable between pet owners and non-pet owners, as wellbeing is related not to pet ownership alone but to qualities of individual human–pet relationships. The results provide new information about psychological mechanisms through which human–pet interactions are conferred, and support for the applicability of both Bowlby’s and Rogers’ concepts.     

Not So Cold-blooded: Narcissistic and Borderline Personality Traits Predict Attachment to Traditional and Non-traditional Pets

A growing number of studies have assessed the personality of pet owners. However, although there is a large number of people who own exotic pets, their personalities have seldom been examined. Furthermore, studies of personality of pet owners have focused almost exclusively on typical personality traits, ignoring associations with “dark” traits. Here, we assessed both traditional and some dark personality features in association with pet ownership and attachment in 325 pet owners via an online survey. We predicted that individuals scoring higher on narcissism and borderline personality features would be a) more likely to own exotic pets, and b) less attached to their pets compared with people scoring lower on narcissism and traditional pet owners. Additionally, we theorized that neurotic pet owners would be more attached to their pets compared with less neurotic pet owners. We did not find an association between personality and exotic pet ownership but we found that those high in grandiose narcissism were actually more attached to their traditional pets. Those high in vulnerable narcissism were more attached only if their pets were exotic. Those high in borderline features were less attached to both kinds of pets. Personality assessments including “dark” features of personality may therefore be useful in predicting attachment to pets during the matching process of potential adopters to pets.     

The Association of Pet Ownership and Attachment with Perceived Stress among Chinese Adults

Pet ownership is associated with both positive and negative emotions. Given that not everyone responds to pet care in a stressful way, perceptions of companion animals may play a role in how owners respond to them. In this study, we explored the relationship between pet ownership and perceived stress among Chinese pet owners. We also examined the effect of care practices and perceptions of pets on perceived stress. A total of 288 Hong Kong Chinese, adult pet owners, aged 18 to 70 years, were recruited. Participants were surveyed using a self-administered questionnaire covering demographics, pet ownership background, pet attachment, and perceived stress. Regression analyses were performed to examine pet attachment in different demographic groups and its relationship with perceived stress. Moderation and mediation analyses were performed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms. After adjusting for demographics and pet ownership background, greater attachment to a pet was associated with lower stress in owners. The perception of pets as family members minimized the stressful burden of pet care. More time spent caring for a pet increased attachment to that animal which in turn reduced stress in owners. The findings suggest attachment to companion animals and the perception of them as family members can help manage and reduce stress in owners.     

Attitudes and Motivations of Owners Who Enroll Pets in Pet Life-Care Centers

The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics, motivations, and expectations of humans who enroll their dogs, cats, and other pets into pet life-care centers. Pet life-care centers are groups or institutions that provide a permanent home for pets in the event of the owner’s illness, inability to care for their pet, or death. The long-term pet care industry has grown in the quality and type of care available to pet owners and is a classic example of the human–animal bond in action. This bond is well-documented in the literature, with most research focusing on physical, emotional, and mental health benefits to the pet owner. Few studies have examined how the human–animal bond affects the animal, and little is known about the motives and expectations of owners who enroll their pet in a life-care center. We conducted a study using a mail questionnaire sent to 163 current clients of a pet life-care center in Texas, USA. Of 101 respondents, whose ages ranged from 30 to over 70, most were female, married, and college-educated. Respondents strongly endorsed a variety of reasons for enrolling their pet in the center, with quality of veterinary care and satisfaction of their pet’s basic needs being the most highly rated. Coding of open-ended responses was consistent with these ratings and identified having no other options as another frequently endorsed reason. The open-ended responses also indicated that respondents expected that their pet would enjoy extensive social interaction, receive high-quality medical attention, and be treated like they were at home. Respondents who had previously visited the center were more willing to adopt a pet in the future than those who had not visited the center. With the dramatic growth of pet life-care centers in the United States and lack of existing literature, further studies in this area are advised.     

A Survey of Companion-Animal Owners Affected by the East Japan Great Earthquake in Iwate and Fukushima Prefectures,Japan

ABSTRACT

The unprecedented East Japan Great Earthquake in March 2011 impacted many humans as well as animals. To date, only national surveys that do not necessarily focus on the heavily impacted areas have been administered, and there is a lack of data on the situation for companion animals and their owners in these areas. This survey was administered between June and November 2012 to pet owners in Iwate (n = 140) and Fukushima (n = 149) Prefectures in north-eastern Japan, areas heavily affected by the disaster. It explored the types of disaster preparations for pets engaged in by owners; the situation on evacuation with pets; the use of, and need for, pet-related support after the disaster; and the associations between pet attachment and disaster-related behaviors of pet owners. In total, 41.2% (n = 119) of all respondents were able to evacuate with their pets, and evacuation rates were especially low in Fukushima. With the exception of preparation of pet food and other supplies, less than 50% of respondents engaged in different types of pet-related disaster preparations. Especially in Fukushima, those who evacuated with their pets were better prepared compared with those who could not. The rate of utilization of support was also low, with less than 50% of respondents utilizing each type of support, regardless of pet-evacuation status and area. The need for support was generally higher during the initial phase (immediately after the disaster; 30–40%) compared with the current phase (20–30%). However, in Fukushima the difference between the initial and current phases was not significant for both those who evacuated with their pets and those who could not. Bivariate analyses indicated mixed results for the association between disaster-related behaviors and pet attachment. Implications for future disaster-prevention measures are discussed.     

Investigating Support for Management of the Pet Trade Invasion Risk

The non-native pet trade contributes directly to species invasions, thereby threatening wildlife. Biological invasions influence environmental change, resulting in species extinctions and biodiversity loss. To mitigate the pet trade invasion risk, interventions are required to prevent trade in non-native animals with high invasion potential, impulse or ill-informed purchases of non-native pets by individuals who may release these animals, and the deliberate release of non-native animals by pet owners. Interventions are also required to prevent the establishment of non-native animals that have been released by pet owners (e.g., euthanasia). The successful implementation of these interventions depends on the support of pet owners and the public in the form of political support for, and compliance with, interventions. In 2017–2018, using both mail and online surveys, we measured the support of 1,171 members of the public and 550 owners of non-native pets in Florida, USA, for 7 different interventions to mitigate the pet trade invasion risk, and we investigated determinants of this support. We found that individuals' support for interventions depended on their concern related to the invasion risks associated with the pet trade, trust in government to manage the pet trade, perceptions of how effective interventions would be in mitigating the pet trade invasion risk, and demographic characteristics. Support for interventions differed across pet owners and the public. Educating pet owners about the traits and cost of care for non-native animals and providing them with options to relinquish unwanted pets may reduce the pet trade invasion risk. Engaging the pet trade in the design of interventions to mitigate invasion risks is likely important to attain voluntary compliance with these interventions. The effectiveness of interventions also depends on enforcement by agencies. Implementing interventions that effectively reduce the pet trade invasion risk is important to protect native and endangered wildlife. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Primates as pets in Mexico City: an assessment of the species involved, source of origin, and general aspects of treatment

The large human populations in cities are an important source of demand for wildlife pets, including primates, and not much is known about the primate species involved in terms of their general origin, the length of time they are kept as pets, and some of the maintenance problems encountered with their use as pets. We report the results of a survey conducted in Mexico City among primate pet owners, which was aimed at providing some of the above information. We used an ethnographic approach, and pet owners were treated as informants to gain their trust so that we could enter their homes and learn about the life of their primate pets. We surveyed 179 owners of primate pets, which included 12 primate species. Of these, three were native species (Ateles geoffroyi, Alouatta pigra, and A. palliata). The rest were other neotropical primate species not native to Mexico, and some paleotropical species. Spider monkeys and two species of howler monkeys native to Mexico accounted for 67% and 15%, respectively, of the primate cases investigated. The most expensive primate pets were those imported from abroad, while the least expensive were the Mexican species. About 45% of the native primate pets were obtained by their owners in a large market in Mexico City, and the rest were obtained in southern Mexico. Although they can provide companionship for children and adults, primate pets are subject to a number of hazards, some of which put their lives at risk. The demand by city dwellers for primate pets, along with habitat destruction and fragmentation, exerts a significant pressure on wild populations in southern Mexico.     

Primates Face to Face: Conservation Implications of Human–Nonhuman Primate Interconnections Edited by Agustín Fuentes and Linda D. Wolfe

ABSTRACT

Sterilization of companion animals is in most cases an expression of the caretaker's will. However, little is known about caretakers' attitudes toward pet sterilization in general—these can influence their decision to sterilize their own animals. Three hundred and twelve Romanian caretakers of non-sterilized companion animals (194 women and 118 men) were surveyed before the implementation of a pet management program in Transylvania, the North-Western part of Romania. The caretakers were administered a questionnaire that gathered demographic data and measured their general attitude toward pet sterilization and their attitude toward the sterilization of their own pet (male or female). Questionnaires were filled in by caretakers of 202 dogs and 110 cats. Romanian pet owners showed an overall level of slight disagreement toward the sterilization of companion animals. Gender-biased attitudes of the Romanian caretakers toward the sterilization of their own pets emerged only when the sex of the animals was taken into consideration, regardless of the type of pet. Romanian men disagreed with neutering male pets while Romanian women were more likely to agree with neutering male pets. No gender difference was detected regarding the spaying of female pets, with both genders showing a slight level of disagreement. The results are discussed from sociological, anthropological, and evolutionary perspectives.     

宠物与生物安全

宠物伴随人类文明已有数千年的历史。随着我国经济的增长和人们生活水平的不断提高,宠物饲养已日益普遍化。宠物种类和数量不断增加的同时,宠物的生物安全问题,已经明显地威胁到生物多样性、生态环境及人类健康。本文分析了宠物的潜在生物安全隐患,探讨了宠物生物安全管理方面存在的问题并提出了宠物生物安全的应对的措施。     

Pets and Happiness: Examining the Association between Pet Ownership and Wellbeing

Are pets associated with happiness in their owners? Some research has demonstrated positive connections between pets and the physical health of their owners, and more recently, research has shown the beneficial effects of pets on the negative aspects of mental health as well. However, much less research has focused on the relation between pets and the positive aspects of mental health, such as happiness. In the current study, 263 American adults completed an online survey using Amazon Mechanical Turk. Results indicate that pet owners were more satisfied with their lives than non-owners, but did not differ on other wellbeing measures, personality measures, emotion regulation, or need satisfaction. Dog owners scored higher on all aspects of wellbeing compared with cat owners, and differed on a number of other measures, including the Big Five personality traits, emotion regulation strategies, and need satisfaction. The relationship between type of pet owned and wellbeing was mediated by the Big Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, specifically), emotion regulation strategy, and need satisfaction. In addition, self-identified “dog people,” relative to “cat people,” showed similar patterns to those of dog owners, but the effects were often smaller and non-significant. Although there may not be many differences between those who own pets and those who do not, clearly owning a dog is associated with beneficial outcomes. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

A Survey of Pet-and Non-Pet-Owning Swedish Adolescents: Demographic Differences and Health Issues

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of pet ownership in adolescents in Sweden and establish whether any gender, age or health-related differences exist between those who own pets and those who do not. In addition, the study aimed to explore the relationships between species of pet, age, gender, and other socio-demographic variables and the perceived importance of pets. Three age groups (13–14 years-old, 15–16 years-old, and 17–18 years-old) of adolescents, resident in a single county in Sweden, were surveyed using the questionnaire “Liv och Hälsa Ung” (“Youth Life and Health”). A total of 8,709 respondents were included in the analysis (pet owners = 5,793; non-pet owners = 2,916). Associations between importance of the pet and demographic variables and general self-rated health were investigated using logistic regression analysis. The prevalence of pet owners in the sample was 65%, and the most common types of pets were, in descending order of popularity, cats, dogs, rodents, fish/reptiles, and horses. Most of the pet owners said their pets were very or quite important to them, for the three age groups (73.1–88.6%). In general, pets were more important for the female respondents. Importance was dependent on type of pet, with male and female dog owners and female horse owners rating their pets as more important than the owners of other species of pet. Respondents who did not own a pet were more physically active than their pet- owning peers. Pet owners with the best self-rated health also attributed the greatest importance to their pet. However, adolescents with pets reported more psychological problems and somatic health aspects than those who did not own pets. This finding calls for further studies to be conducted, with designs allowing causal conclusions to be drawn.     

Examining Differences between Homebound Older Adult Pet Owners and Non-pet Owners in Depression,Systemic Inflammation,and Executive Function

Homebound older adults are prone to depression, which is linked to systemic inflammation that promotes executive function decline. A companion animal may reduce the negative biobehavioral processes asso- ciated with depression, inflammation, and reduced executive function in homebound older adults. The primary aim of this study was to examine dif- ferences between homebound older adult pet owners and non-pet owners in depression, salivary C-reactive protein (CRP), and executive function. The secondary aim was to determine if the level of attachment to pets was as- sociated with depression, salivary CRP, and executive function. The study was cross-sectional and investigated homebound older adult pet owners and non-pet owners (n = 88) using psychometrically reliable and valid instru- ments (Geriatric Depression Scale Short Form and CLOX 1). Salivary CRP was assessed with immunoassay. Level of attachment to pets was measured using a Likert scale (0–10). Mean age for the total sample was 75 years (SD = 9). Forty-eight (55%) participants owned pets (56% dogs, 25% cats, 4% other pets, 15% both cats and dogs). Pet owners reported a high level of attachment to pets (Median = 10). Pet owners had significantly higher ex- ecutive function than non-pet owners (t = –2.07; p = 0.04) but there were no significant differences in executive function between cat owners and dog owners (t = 1.53; p = 0.14). Pet owners and non-pet owners were similar in depression (t = –1.80, p = 0.08) and salivary CRP levels (t = 0.27, p = 0.79). Level of attachment to pets was significantly and positively correlated with executive function (r = 0.30; p = 0.04) but was not significantly correlated with depression (r = 0.04, p = 0.77) or salivary CRP (r = –0.04, p = 0.80). Compared with non-pet owners, pet owners had better executive function but similar depression and salivary CRP levels. Reasons for these findings are unclear. Significant positive correlation be- tween pet attachment and executive function suggests further investigation in this area. Future studies with larger samples and a longitudinal design are needed to investigate the biobehavioral changes over time in relation to pet ownership, level of attachment to pets, and executive func- tion in homebound older adults.     

Using Attachment Theory and Social Support Theory to Examine and Measure Pets as Sources of Social Support and Attachment Figures

Companion animals are increasingly being recognized by society as beneficial to our health and considered by many owners as authentic and affectional family members. Human relationship theories help us to understand the emotional and supportive aspect of the human– companion animal bond. This study uses attachment theory, social support theory, and the concept of the hierarchical nature of attachment relationships to further understand and measure human–animal attachment. In study 1,161 university-student pet owners completed a modified multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS) that included pets as a source of support, and we pre-tested a 60-item pet attachment measure. Results showed that students perceived their pets as distinctive sources of social support, at similar levels to their significant others, family, and friends. Principal components analysis of the 60-item measure reduced it to 31 items, and revealed four pet attachment components: (a) Proximity maintenance and interaction, (b) Emotional attachment behaviors, (c) Emotional support given and received, and (d) Emotional and monetary value. The scale was named the Emotional and Supportive Attachment to Companion Animals Scale (ESACA) (Cronbach’s α = 0.96). In study 2, 83 university students completed an attachment hierarchy scale and the ESACA. Companion animals were included in pet owners’ attachment hierarchies and ranked higher than siblings but lower than romantic partners, parents, and close friends. Those who indicated higher attachment to their companion animals ranked them higher in their attachment hierarchy than those less attached. This study supports and extends previous research that has used aspects of attachment theory and social support theory when exploring the human–animal bond. Many companion animal owners perceive their pets as additional sources of emotional support, fulfilling the four features of an attachment relationship and including them in their hierarchy of important attachment relationships.     

Exploring the Grief Experience Among Callers to a Pet Loss Support Hotline

The present study explored the grief experience among callers to the Ontario Veterinary College Pet Loss Support Hotline (PLSH). Summary notes (n = 75) of the conversations between callers and PLSH volunteers were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis. Major content categories emerging from the analysis include personal pet narrative; perceived support sources; grief experiences; relationship with pet; memorialization; grief coping strategies; grief triggers; decision to euthanize; and veterinary interaction. Findings support that pet loss grief is a broad, complex construct, which can be complicated by a pet owner’s perceptions that they have minimal social support sources and negative veterinary interactions. Pet owners involved in the current study appeared comfortable sharing personal stories about their pet’s death when asked. In addition, memorialization appeared to be widely used by PLSH callers and may have helped them cope with their loss. Importantly, the interaction with veterinary staff was identified to potentially aggravate or alleviate a pet owner’s grief experience. Implications for mental health counselors and veterinary staff are that asking pet owners to tell their pet’s story and explore their support network may have value following the loss of a pet. Also, effectively communicating about memorialization and grief coping strategies may be beneficial when talking to owners experiencing grief. Finally, there continues to be a need for curricula and continuing professional training courses for veterinarians and mental health counselors to address topics such as the human–animal bond, grief, euthanasia, and memorialization practices.     

Relationships’ Best Friend: Links between Pet Ownership,Empathy, and Romantic Relationship Outcomes

The benefits of pets on individual wellbeing is well established. But can pets also have benefits for romantic relationships? Using mixed methods, three studies explored the link between pet ownership and romantic relationship quality. First, using a grounded theory approach, we qualitatively investigated participants’ personal beliefs of how their pets influence their romantic relationships by coding open-ended responses. Results suggested that pets are seen as having predominantly positive (86.5%) effects, followed by few neutral (8%) and negative (4.5%) effects (study 1). We next compared a community sample of pet owners’ reports of relationship quality with those of non-pet owners. Results suggested that pet ownership was associated with several relationship benefits (greater overall relationship quality, partner responsiveness, adjustment, and relational investment) compared with couples without pets (study 2). Finally, we examined one possible reason for why pets may benefit relationships: A pet might provide the opportunity to practice empathic abilities, which is a crucial ability in the maintenance of positive relationships. Results showed that the number of years an individual owned a pet was positively correlated with empathic concern, which in turn was linked to several relationship benefits (commitment, couple identity, and relationship maintenance behaviors; study 3). In sum, three studies provided initial evidence that there is indeed a positive association between two important relationships in peoples’ lives: their partners and their pets.     

Pet owner behaviors and attachment to yard versus house dogs

Abstract

The majority of research on the human–nonhuman animal bond has considered its advantages for the human. Research investigating the benefits of the bond for the companion animal has focused primarily on the relationship between owner attachment and the relinquishment or abandonment of pets. Shore, Douglas and Riley (2005) compiled a list of 67 behaviors of pet owners of potential benefit to the dog or cat, categorized the behaviors as Essential, Standard, Enriched, or Luxury Care, and studied the relationship between these behaviors and a measure of attachment. The present study continues the investigation of more routine pet-keeping activities by examining the prevalence of such behaviors among a subset of dog owners who keep their dogs out of doors as compared with those whose dogs live primarily in the house. Participants were 322 largely non-traditional college students at a university in the Midwestern United States. Scores on two attachment measures were significantly higher for owners of house dogs as compared with those of owners of yard dogs. Although the majority of both house and yard dogs received basic care, fewer yard dogs received as high levels of attention to some of their physical and safety needs. The gap between yard and house dogs widened as the category of care moved from Essential to Enriched. Involvement in agility training, being taken to events for pets, and exercising with a member of the family were notable exceptions, in that they occurred in equal proportions for yard and house dogs, and perhaps represent opportunities for yard dogs to be in closer contact with a human caretaker. The results suggest that adoptions of sheltered or rescued dogs to people who plan to keep the pet outside can be made with confidence that the dog will be cared for, but that programs to educate the public on the social needs of dogs and the benefits of keeping dogs indoors might result in increased attention to the needs of the animals, strengthening of the human–nonhuman animal bond, and reduction of relinquishment.     

Pet Loss and Grief: Identifying At-risk Pet Owners during the Euthanasia Process

Pet owners often experience complex and profound grief reactions when their animals are euthanized. Veterinary staff are increasingly being called upon to be aware of and to respond to the grief reactions of pet owners at this critical time. The objectives of this study were to identify pet owners who are most at risk of grief and to suggest veterinary interventions during the euthanasia process. A convenience sample of 409 pet owners whose animals had been euthanized in the past year took part in a survey. Variables of interest included pet and pet-owner demographics, pet-death characteristics, attachment to pet, and bereavement reactions. Stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify factors related to the three grief reaction subtypes: sorrow, anger, and guilt. Results indicated that attachment to pets was a strong predictor of feelings of grief/sorrow (p < 0.001) and anger (p < 0.001). Sudden death was also related to feelings of anger (p < 0.05). Cancer diagnosis was negatively related to feelings of anger (p < 0.05) and guilt (p < 0.01). The findings from this study provide additional insight into the complexity of grief following pet euthanasia. For veterinary staff, anticipating the needs of pet owners and supporting them through the grief process is an integral role. Understanding which pet owners are at greatest risk of grief is an important initial step, followed by empathic communications, sensitive interactions, and the provision of grief support.