芜湖市冬夏季鸟类多样性分析

2004年5月至2005年2月,对芜湖市4种典型生境（农田居民区、城市园林、河漫滩湿地和河流湿地）的冬夏季鸟类进行调查,并探讨4种生境冬夏两季鸟类多样性指数.共记录鸟类117种,隶属于15目31科.农田居民区、城市园林和河漫滩湿地夏季鸟的种类数、G-F指数高于冬季,河流湿地冬季鸟的种类数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数均明显高于夏季.城市园林鸟的种类数、G-F指数最高,河漫滩湿地Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数最高.夏季的农田居民区和冬季的城市园林鸟类密度最大,分别为31.1140和42.9160 ind·hm^-2,而河流湿地鸟的种类数、密度、Shannon-Wiener指数、G-F指数均最低.增加栖息地异质性、减少人为干扰可以提高鸟类多样性.     

Maternal deposition of yolk corticosterone in clutches of southern rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome chrysocome)

High corticosterone levels can have deleterious effects in developing avian embryos and chicks. Therefore, it may be adaptive for avian mothers to reduce corticosterone transfer to their eggs. However, until now, data about the active or/and passive role of mothers in corticosterone transfer to eggs are inconclusive. Here, we study maternal investment into A- and B-eggs of southern rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome chrysocome). This species exhibits reversed hatching asynchrony and provides a unique model to test whether there is a strategic investment in corticosterone favoring the B-chick, which is most likely to survive. We found that rockhopper penguins had the highest yolk concentrations of any wild bird species studied so far. Contrary to our expectations, B-eggs had more yolk corticosterone both in concentration and in quantity than A-eggs, independently of the laying period and the level of human disturbance. Additionally, females deposited more yolk corticosterone in their eggs when they were disturbed. However, this disturbance effect was particularly strong for A-eggs and for late-laid eggs. The present data support neither the predictions for an active regulation nor for a passive deposition, and hormone deposition mechanisms still need to be explored. The adaptive value, if any, of high yolk corticosterone is presently unknown.     

Stability of Avian Fecal Corticosterone Metabolite Levels in Frozen Avian Feces

ABSTRACT Fecal corticosterone metabolites are commonly used in avian ecology as a measure of response to stress. Recent research on mammals suggested that the manner in which samples are stored could be critical to alleviating any storage handling bias. Cross-reacting metabolites can increase glucocorticoid metabolites even after samples are frozen and, thus, result in an overestimation of hormone levels as the time increases between when samples were collected and when levels are measured. We examined effects of sample storage time on fecal corticosterone metabolites for 2 avian species across 165 days. We observed no change in fecal corticosterone metabolites across the sampling periods in either fulvous whistling-ducks (Dendrocygna bicolor) or white ibis (Eudocimus albus). Results suggest that avian fecal corticosterone metabolite levels do not change when samples are frozen for long periods of time and that there were no differences in the response between the 2 species we compared. This study demonstrated that avian fecal corticosterone samples are accurate even after freezing and, thus, studies that seek to address conservation questions may rely on these data. Studies of additional bird species are needed to generalize our findings to other avian taxa.     

Seasonal changes of the adrenocortical response to stress in birds of the Sonoran Desert.

Many avian species of the North American Sonoran desert, e.g., the black-throated sparrow, Amphispiza bilineata, cactus wren, Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, and curve-billed thrasher, Toxostoma curvirostre, can potentially breed from March/April to August. It is possible that, at least in summer, intense heat and aridity may have inhibitory effects on breeding by precipitating a stress response. Stress typically results in a rise in secretion of adrenocorticosteroid hormones that then inhibit reproduction by suppressing release of gonadal hormones. However, we found that plasma levels of corticosterone were not higher during summer, compared with winter, even in 1989 when summer temperatures were higher than normal. In June 1990, temperatures were also above normal and soared to the highest level recorded in Arizona (50 degrees C). Plasma levels of corticosterone during June were high in black-throated sparrows, but less so in two other species (Abert's towhee, Pipilo aberti, and Inca dove, Scardafella inca) found in more shady riparian and suburban habitat with constant access to water. The adrenocortical response to stress (as measured by the rate of corticosterone increase following capture) was reduced in the hottest summer months in black-throated sparrows, cactus wrens, and curve-billed thrashers, but less so in Abert's towhee an Inca dove. These data suggest that at least some birds breeding in the open desert with restricted access to water are able to suppress the classical adrenocortical response to stress. The response is then reactivated in winter after breeding has ceased. It is possible that this stress modulation may allow breeding to continue despite severe heat. Analysis of plasma from these species indicated that the apparent modulation of the adrenocortical response to stress was not an artifact of reduced affinity or capacity of corticosterone binding proteins.     

Flexibility in phenology and habitat use act as buffers to long‐term population declines in UK passerines

Ecological responses to environmental change are wide‐ranging, from alterations in the timing of life‐history events to range and population changes. Explaining the variation across species in these responses is essential for identifying vulnerable species and for developing adequate conservation or mitigation strategies. Using population trend data from the UK Breeding Bird Survey, this study examined the association between long‐term population trends (1994–2007) and phenological, life‐history and resource‐use traits of UK passerine species. Phenology, as well as productivity and resource use were significantly associated with long‐term population trends. Average laying date and first clutch laying period were key predictors, with higher population growth rates associated with earlier laying dates and longer laying periods. This suggests that flexibility in the duration of reproductive periods buffers species against environmental changes. Average laying period was particularly important for migrant species. Flexibility in laying dates for these species is constrained by their arrival dates; mean change in arrival date over a twenty‐five year period strongly predicted population trends amongst migrant species. Besides the key role phenological flexibility plays in buffering population declines, we also showed that more productive, generalist species were less likely to have declining populations than species with specialized habitat requirements, particularly those associated with farmland and urban areas and those reliant on highly seasonal food items (i.e. invertebrate eaters). These results underscore the need for a multi‐faceted approach to understanding the mechanisms governing population trends. Additionally, species’ sensitivity to environmental change is likely to depend on interactions between species‐specific phenology, habitat and resource‐use traits.     

Corticosterone responses of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) are higher during incubation than during other breeding stages

We report the results of the first field study examining seasonal changes in corticosterone responses of typically long-lived birds of the order Procellariiformes. In particular, we examined whether grey-faced petrels Pterodroma macroptera gouldi showed changes in circulating baseline corticosterone concentrations and corticosterone responses to a standardized handling protocol across the breeding season. Such changes have been associated with changes in body condition and variations in energy demands on adult birds through the breeding season. During early incubation, males were in significantly better condition than females that had just completed laying, whereas during late incubation, males were in significantly poorer condition than females. In spite of these differences, there was no significant difference in baseline corticosterone concentrations between sexes or among birds at different reproductive stages. However, we detected significant differences in corticosterone responses associated with a standardized handling protocol at different stages through the breeding season. Responses were significantly greater during incubation compared with the prelay period and late chick rearing. Body condition was weakly and negatively correlated with maximum and total integrated corticosterone level, indicating that some of the individual variability in stress corticosterone responses could be explained by variation in body condition. However, the largest stress response occurred during late incubation and was independent of sex, although males were in relatively poor condition and females in relatively good condition. This period coincided with the breeding stage in which energy constraints on individual adults were higher than at other periods of the reproductive cycle and birds may be physiologically primed for extended fasts.     

Seasonal pattern of LH and testosterone secretion in adult male fallow deer, Dama dama

At monthly intervals during the year blood samples were collected every 20 min for 12 h from 4 entire and 2 prepubertally castrated adult fallow deer bucks. In the entire bucks there were seasonal changes in mean concentrations and pulse frequencies of plasma LH. Mean concentrations in late summer and autumn were 3-6 times higher than during other seasons. LH pulse frequency was low (0-1 pulses/12 h) during most of the year and increased only during the 2-month period (January and February) that marked the transition from the non-breeding season to the autumn rut. During this period there was a close temporal relationship between pulses of LH and testosterone. However, during the rutting period (March and April) episodic secretion of testosterone, manifest as surges in plasma concentrations of 4-6 h duration, was not associated with any detectable pulses in LH although mean plasma concentrations of LH remained elevated. During the rut, the surges of plasma testosterone occurred at similar times of the day. Plasma profiles in May indicated very low concentrations of LH and testosterone secretion in the immediate post-rut period. Castrated bucks exhibited highly seasonal patterns of LH secretion, with mean plasma LH concentrations and LH pulse frequency being lowest in November (early summer) and highest in February and March (late summer-early autumn). Mean concentrations and pulse frequency of LH in castrated bucks were higher than for entire bucks at all times of the year.     

水位变动影响下三峡库区汉丰湖鸟类群落及多样性

受三峡水库夏落冬涨的水位调控方式影响,位于三峡库区腹心的重庆开州区汉丰湖形成22.5m水位落差。为了解汉丰湖鸟类群落结构与动态水位变化之间的响应关系,2015年3月—2016年2月对汉丰湖鸟类群落结构及多样性进行了调查。共记录鸟类97种,隶属12目32科,其中湿地鸟类49种,主要包括雁鸭类(18种)、鸻鹬类(13种)、鹭类(7种)及秧鸡类(5种)。研究表明:受水位变化影响,鸟类群落结构及其多样性变化显著。夏季(8月)低水位期(水位高程152.50m),鸟种数最高,为34种,Shannon-Wiener指数最高;肉食性鸟与食虫鸟是主要取食功能群;与夏季低水位期生境类型多样、消落带植物正处于生长旺盛期、食物资源丰富有关,是雀形目鸟类、鹭类、秧鸡类等适宜的栖息地。冬季(12月)高水位期(水位高程174.50m),鸟种数为30种,Shannon-Wiener指数、均匀度指数均最低,植食性鸟类是主要的取食功能群,鸟类数量最高;与冬季高水位期水面开阔、生境类型单一有关,高水位期的大水面有利于鸭类集群越冬。冬季在退水期(水位高程170.01m),水位下降导致汉丰湖生境结构变化,越冬鸟类数量和物种丰度降低,空间分布格局也随之变化。鸟类是三峡水库生物多样性的重要组成部分,为保护和提升三峡水库生物多样性,恢复和营造鸟类栖息地,应针对繁殖鸟和越冬水鸟的功能需求进行生态设计。     

Plasticity of brood patch development and its influence on incubation periods in the yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes: an experimental approach

In many bird species, eggs laid late in the laying period hatch after a shorter incubation period than early-laid eggs. However, the mechanisms that explain these seasonal declines in incubation periods among clutches remain poorly understood. In this study we investigated the plasticity of brood patch development during incubation in yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes and established whether differences exist in brood patch formation among early, mean and late-breeding penguins. We also examined whether brood patch development was influenced by sex and age of birds. We then placed an artificial egg in nests a few days prior to egg laying to investigate whether the presence of an egg influences brood patch development and whether an advanced brood patch development at the time of egg laying causes declines in incubation periods. Initial brood patch width on the day the first egg was laid was dependent on sex and age, while the development of brood patch width after first egg laying was slower in early-laying birds than in mean- and late-laying birds. Initial brood patch temperature as well as temperature throughout incubation was largely dependent upon sex, whereby males had higher brood patch surface temperatures than females. Placement of an artificial egg in nests stimulated successfully brood patch development in manipulated birds, so that by the time they laid their own first egg, their brood patches were wider and had higher temperatures than those of control birds. Moreover, incubation periods of first eggs from manipulated nests were significantly shorter (43.5 days) than were those from control nests (47.3 days). Thus, variation in brood patch development and related differences in incubation temperature during early incubation could contribute to seasonal declines in incubation periods.     

Sex differences in plasma corticosterone in desert tortoises, Gopherus agassizii, during the reproductive cycle

Blood samples from 30 female and 20 male adult desert tortoises, Gopherus agassizii, were collected at monthly intervals during the annual reproductive cycle (April to October). Plasma corticosterone and the sex steroids in each of the samples were analyzed by radioimmunoassay. Mean corticosterone levels in males were significantly higher than in females (P < 0.001) in every month. Male tortoises showed a marked seasonal pattern in plasma corticosterone with a highly significant peak in July, August, September, and October that corresponded with a similar peak in plasma testosterone. Testosterone and corticosterone in the male showed a highly significant correlation (P < 0.0001). The pattern of corticosterone in the female was less marked, with a significant peak in May during the mating and nesting season, but no association with the peak in estradiol in late summer was apparent. The highest levels of corticosterone in the males were associated with the peak in spermatogenesis and intense male-male combat. These results support similar data from other reptiles that suggest increased glucocorticoid secretion during periods of increased activity and metabolism.     

Reduced reproductive performance associated with warmer ambient temperatures during incubation in a winter‐breeding,food‐storing passerine

Timing of reproduction can influence individual fitness whereby early breeders tend to have higher reproductive success than late breeders. However, the fitness consequences of timing of breeding may also be influenced by environmental conditions after the commencement of breeding. We tested whether ambient temperatures during the incubation and early nestling periods modulated the effect of laying date on brood size and dominant juvenile survival in gray jays (Perisoreus canadensis), a sedentary boreal species whose late winter nesting depends, in part, on caches of perishable food. Previous evidence has suggested that warmer temperatures degrade the quality of these food hoards, and we asked whether warmer ambient temperatures during the incubation and early nestling periods would be associated with smaller brood sizes and lower summer survival of dominant juveniles. We used 38 years of data from a range‐edge population of gray jays in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, where the population has declined over 50% since the study began. Consistent with the “hoard‐rot” hypothesis, we found that cold temperatures during incubation were associated with larger brood sizes in later breeding attempts, but temperatures had little effect on brood size for females breeding early in the season. This is the first evidence that laying date and temperature during incubation interactively influence brood size in any bird species. We did not find evidence that ambient temperatures during the incubation period or early part of the nestling period influenced summer survival of dominant juveniles. Our findings provide evidence that warming temperatures are associated with some aspects of reduced reproductive performance in a species that is reliant on cold temperatures to store perishable food caches, some of which are later consumed during the reproductive period.     

Long-term change in water transparency before and after the loss of eelgrass beds in an estuarine lagoon,Lake Nakaumi,Japan

Long-term changes in Secchi disk transparency in Lake Nakaumi, Japan, from 1932 to the present, which includes the periods before and after the loss of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) beds, were compiled from previous reports. During the first (July 1932–February 1934) and the second (January 1949–November 1950) periods, the mean transparency was greater than 3 m at all observed stations. Data during the third period (July 1954–March 1956) are only available for the station at the center of the lake. The mean transparency during the third period was significantly lower than that of the second period but higher than the mean during the fourth period. This observation suggests that the decrease of transparency occurred during the third period. Because the decline of eelgrass beds in Lake Nakaumi occurred in the mid-1950s, the decrease of transparency most likely resulted from the shift in primary producers from submerged macrophytes to phytoplankton. Although the maximum transparency sometimes exceeded 3 m, mean transparencies during the fourth period (May 1975–December 2003) were less than 2 m at all stations, significantly lower than those during the first and second periods. The shift in the chief primary producer, from benthic macrophytes to phytoplankton, caused a subsequent shift in secondary producers. The opportunistic filter-feeding bivalve Musculista senhousia, regarded as a biofouling species of local fisheries, increased in Lake Nakaumi. The long-term monitoring data of transparency suggested that restoration of submerged aquatic vegetation may be indispensable for the remediation of the lake environment in this shallow eutrophic lagoon.     

Declining egg viability explains higher hatching failure in a suburban population of the threatened Florida scrub‐jay Aphelocoma coerulescens

Hatching failure occurs in approximately 10% of all avian eggs, but varies both within and among species. This reduction in viable offspring can have significant fitness consequences for breeding parents; therefore, it is important to understand which factors influence variation in hatching failure among populations. Previous research suggests that hatching failure is higher in a suburban than in a wildland population in the Florida scrub‐jay. From 2003 to 2007, we performed two experiments to examine whether increased hatching failure in the suburbs resulted from 1) increased length of off‐bouts during incubation (predation risk hypothesis, 2003–2004) or 2) increased exposure to ambient temperature during laying (egg viability hypothesis, 2005–2007). Hatching failure was higher for females that took fewer off‐bouts, but the length of those off‐bouts did not influence hatching failure. Thus, nest predation risk does not appear to explain higher hatching failure in the suburbs. Alternatively, hatching failure increased with increasing exposure of eggs to ambient conditions during the laying period. First‐laid eggs in the suburbs had the greatest pre‐incubation exposure to ambient temperature and the greatest rate of hatching failure, consistent with the egg viability hypothesis. Urbanization influences hatching failure through a series of complex interactions. Access to predictable food sources advances mean laying date in suburban scrub‐jays, leading to larger clutch sizes. Because scrub‐jays begin incubation with the ultimate egg, first‐laid eggs in the suburbs may be exposed to ambient temperatures for longer periods, thus reducing their viability.     

Mate provisioning, nutritional requirements for egg production, and primary reproductive effort of female Common Terns Sterna hirundo

We assessed the nutritional importance of mate provisioning to females during egg production and its effects on clutch parameters (egg size, length of the laying period) in Common Terns Sterna hirundo: (1) we estimated the costs of egg production by modeling the daily protein, lipid, and energy requirements of laying females, and (2) compared these costs to both the amount, and the timing, of the male's contribution via mate provisioning. Net lipid, net protein, and gross energy requirements for a three‐egg clutch were estimated to be 5.4 g, 8.6 g, and 569 kJ respectively. Peak protein and lipid requirements occurred one (day ?1) and two (day ?2) days before laying, respectively. Peak energy requirement occurred on day ?1; a cost of 127% to 157% above maintenance. Variation in male provisioning effort (in terms of energy and nutrients delivered) paralleled variation in predicted female requirements for egg production at the level of individual pairs. Males delivered protein in excess of the female's requirements on all days investigated. Male lipid delivery accounted for 45% of female net requirement on the day when demand was greatest (day ?2), but exceeded requirements on all other days. However, the proportion of the female's total energy budget (egg production, maintenance, and activity costs) that was supplied by her mate rose from an average of 29% on day ?2 to 76% during the interval between second and third eggs. Paradoxically, females that were fed at higher rates during the interval between first and second eggs produced clutches with lower total volumes, smaller last‐laid eggs, and clutches with a greater egg‐size hierarchy than conspecifics receiving less food from their mates. Also, females fed at higher rates during the interval between second and third eggs took longer to produce their clutch. These negative relationships between mate provisioning and clutch parameters contrast with previous studies in this and other species.     

Baseline and stress-induced plasma corticosterone during long-distance migration in the bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica

The specific roles of corticosterone in promotion of avian migration remain unclear even though this glucocorticosteroid is elevated in many migrating bird species. In general, glucocorticosteroids promote metabolic homeostasis and may elicit effects on feeding and locomotion. Because the migratory stages of refueling and flight are characterized by distinct behaviors and physiology, the determination of corticosterone levels during each stage should help identify potential processes in which corticosterone is involved. We measured baseline levels of corticosterone in bar-tailed godwits (Limosa lapponica) during two distinct stages of migration: (1) immediately after arrival at a false stopover site just short of the Wadden Sea and (2) throughout the subsequent 4-wk refueling period on the Wadden Sea. Plasma corticosterone was higher in arriving than in refueling birds. In addition, corticosterone increased with size-corrected body mass during the refueling phase, suggesting that corticosterone rises as birds prepare to reinitiate flight. Therefore, elevated corticosterone appears associated with migratory flight and may participate in processes characterizing this stage. We also performed a capture stress protocol in all birds and found that corticosterone increased in both arriving and refueling godwits. Therefore, the normal course of migration may be typified by corticosterone concentrations that are lower than those associated with stressful and life-threatening episodes.     

Population dynamics of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) and analysis of the factors influencing the population in Ruili, Yunnan Province, China

Annual monitoring of the population dynamics of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) using methyl eugenol-baited traps was conducted throughout the year during 1997, 2000, 2003 and 2004 in Ruili, Yunnan Province, China. Temperature, rainfall and host-plant species were analyzed with respect to population fluctuation of the fly. During the study periods the fruit fly occurred throughout the year. Its population remained low from November to January and increased steadily from February until it reached a peak in June. Afterwards, the population declined until October. The results of stepwise regression analysis indicated that monthly mean temperature, monthly mean maximum temperature, monthly mean minimum temperature, monthly extreme maximum temperature, monthly extreme minimum temperature, and monthly raining days were the major climatic factors influencing populations. Path and decision coefficient analyses indicated that the monthly mean temperature was the crucial factor influencing population fluctuation, the monthly mean minimum temperature was the crucial limiting factor indirectly influencing increase in population, and the comprehensive factors influencing fly population dynamics, namely, the monthly raining days were the strongest of all the other factors. Generally, the monthly mean temperatures fell within the ranges of temperatures suitable for development and reproduction of the fly. But the monthly mean minimum temperatures from November to January seemed to be lower and were suggested to be responsible for the low populations in this period. Monthly rainfall and rainy days steadily increased from February through June, and this explained the increase in population observed during this period. During periods of continuous heavy rain from July through August, the fruit fly population showed a remarkable decrease. Host plant species was another essential factor influencing the population fluctuations. Abundant fruit and melon species formed the food and breeding materials for the fly during the study periods.     

Population dynamics of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) and analysis of the factors influencing the population in Ruili, Yunnan Province, China

Annual monitoring of the population dynamics of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) using methyl eugenol-baited traps was conducted throughout the year during 1997, 2000, 2003 and 2004 in Ruili, Yunnan Province, China. Temperature, rainfall and host-plant species were analyzed with respect to population fluctuation of the fly. During the study periods the fruit fly occurred throughout the year. Its population remained low from November to January and increased steadily from February until it reached a peak in June. Afterwards, the population declined until October. The results of stepwise regression analysis indicated that monthly mean temperature, monthly mean maximum temperature, monthly mean minimum temperature, monthly extreme maximum temperature, monthly extreme minimum temperature, and monthly raining days were the major climatic factors influencing populations. Path and decision coefficient analyses indicated that the monthly mean temperature was the crucial factor influencing population fluctuation, the monthly mean minimum temperature was the crucial limiting factor indirectly influencing increase in population, and the comprehensive factors influencing fly population dynamics, namely, the monthly raining days were the strongest of all the other factors. Generally, the monthly mean temperatures fell within the ranges of temperatures suitable for development and reproduction of the fly. But the monthly mean minimum temperatures from November to January seemed to be lower and were suggested to be responsible for the low populations in this period. Monthly rainfall and rainy days steadily increased from February through June, and this explained the increase in population observed during this period. During periods of continuous heavy rain from July through August, the fruit fly population showed a remarkable decrease. Host plant species was another essential factor influencing the population fluctuations. Abundant fruit and melon species formed the food and breeding materials for the fly during the study periods.     

DEMOGRAPHY OF FRONDS OF SARGASSUM LAPAZEANUM FROM SOUTHERN BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO, DURING EARLY STAGES

In terms of biomass, Sargassum lapazeanum (Phaeophyceae, Fucales) is one of the most important seaweeds in La Paz Bay, on the southeastern coast of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. This species can be found year-round in shallow subtidal sites. Standing biomass is lowest between fall and winter and highest between spring and summer. We are currently studying the annual demography of fronds as a necessary step to understanding the mechanisms of population regulation. Work is being done on a bed of about 90 m in length and three m in width. At this stage of abstract submission, we can report results for winter only. Random samples were collected in February and in March 2000 to estimate stand biomass, frond density, and size (frond length) structure. In addition, we labeled fronds with numbered plastic tags to estimate their rates of growth and of mortality during this period. Rates of recruitment were estimated from a combined analysis of the above. In February, fronds were all shorter than 6.5 cm. Between February and March, mean total frond density increased from 122 to 776 fronds m⁻² (n = 30 quadrats). The mean recruitment rate was 667 fronds m⁻², the mean growth rate was 0.5 cm day⁻¹ (n = 60 fronds), and the mean mortality rate was 43 fronds m⁻². From last year's preliminary observations, we expect to observe peaks of biomass and of reproduction in late spring, followed by negative growth rates and high mortality rates during summer.     

Reproductive cycle of the sea cucumber Psolus patagonicus Ekman 1925, off Mar del Plata,Buenos Aires,Argentina

The reproductive cycle of Psolus patagonicus Ekman 1925 was studied. The species exhibits an annual reproductive cycle with one reproductive period in austral summer (February–March). During spring and summer, females showed the highest gonad-index (GI) values, while the GI values of males did not vary significantly throughout the year. Males had higher GI values than females. Maximum oocyte diameters ranged from less than 300?µm in spring to 900?µm in summer. In February, there is an increase in phytoplankton bloom for the bottom community in which P. patagonicus inhabits. The annual range in water temperature is small (6–7°C). Spawning coincided with increase in available food rather than the increase in water temperature.     

Testosterone and corticosterone during the breeding cycle of equatorial and European stonechats (Saxicola torquata axillaris and S. t. rubicola)

Northern-temperate male birds show seasonal changes in testosterone concentrations with a peak during the breeding season. Many tropical birds express much lower concentrations of testosterone with slight elevations during breeding. Here we describe testosterone and corticosterone concentrations of male stonechats from equatorial Kenya during different substages of breeding and molt. This tropical species has a short breeding season of approximately 3 months. We compare their hormone concentrations to previously published data of males of a northern-temperate relative, the European stonechat, also a seasonal breeder but with a breeding season of approximately 5 months. Equatorial stonechats show a pronounced peak of testosterone during the nest-building and laying stage. During all other stages, testosterone concentrations are low, similar to other year-round territorial tropical bird species. Corticosterone concentrations peak also during the nest-building and laying stage suggesting that this period of maximum female fecundity is a demanding period for the male. Equatorial stonechats have significantly lower concentrations of testosterone than European stonechats during all stages, except during the nest-building and laying stage. During this stage of maximum female fertility, testosterone levels tend to be higher in equatorial than in European stonechats. Our results suggest that equatorial stonechats belong to a group of tropical bird species that are characterized by a short breeding season and a brief high peak of testosterone during the female's fertile period. Such brief, but substantial peaks of testosterone may be common in tropical birds, but they may easily be missed if the exact breeding stage of individual birds is not known.