Molecular systematic and historical biogeography of the armored Neotropical catfishes Hypoptopomatinae and Neoplecostominae (Siluriformes: Loricariidae)

The Neotropics possess the greatest freshwater fish diversity of the world, rendering the study of their evolutionary history extremely challenging. Loricariidae catfishes are one of the most diverse components of the Neotropical ichthyofauna and despite a long history of classification, major issues still need elucidation. Based on a nuclear gene, we present a robust phylogeny of two former loricariid subfamilies: Hypoptopomatinae and Neoplecostominae. Our results show that Neoplecostominae is nested within Hypoptopomatinae, and is the sister group to the former Otothyrini tribe. According to our results, supplemented by morphological observations, we erect two new subfamilies, the Otothyrinae and a new Hypoptopomatinae, and modify the Neoplecostominae by including the genus Pseudotocinclus. The uncovered evolutionary relationships allow a detailed analysis of their historical biogeography. We tested two Dispersal-Extinction-Cladogenesis models for inferring the distribution range evolution of the new subfamilies, and show that the model having no constrains performs better than a model constraining long-range dispersal. The Maximum Likelihood reconstructions of ancestral ranges showed a marked division between the Amazonian origin of the Hypoptopomatinae and the eastern coastal Brazil+Upper Paraná origin of the Neoplecostominae and Otothyrinae. Markedly few instances of dispersal across the border separating the Amazon basin and the Paraná-Paraguay+eastern coastal Brazil+Uruguay were reconstructed. This result is in clear contrast with the historical biogeography of many Neotropical fishes, including other Loricariidae. Part of the dispersal limitation may be explained by divergent ecological specialization: lowland rivers versus mountain streams habitats. Moreover, because most species of the new subfamilies are small, we hypothesize that body size-related effects might limit their dispersal, like predation and energetic cost to migration. Finally, morphological and anatomical features are presented that limit or, to the contrary, enhance dispersal capability in these small and fascinating catfishes.     

Molecular Phylogeny and Biogeographic History of the Armored Neotropical Catfish Subfamilies Hypoptopomatinae,Neoplecostominae and Otothyrinae (Siluriformes: Loricariidae)

The main objectives of this study are estimate a species-dense, time-calibrated molecular phylogeny of Hypoptopomatinae, Neoplecostominae, and Otothyrinae, which together comprise a group of armoured catfishes that is widely distributed across South America, to place the origin of major clades in time and space, and to demonstrate the role of river capture on patterns of diversification in these taxa. We used maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods to estimate a time-calibrated phylogeny of 115 loricariid species, using three mitochondrial and one nuclear genes to generate a matrix of 4,500 base pairs, and used parametric biogeographic analyses to estimate ancestral geographic ranges and to infer the effects of river capture events on the geographic distributions of these taxa. Our analysis recovered Hypoptopomatinae, Neoplecostominae, and Otothyrinae as monophyletic with strong statistical support, and Neoplecostominae as more closely related to Otothyrinae than to Hypoptopomatinae. Our time-calibrated phylogeny and ancestral-area estimations indicate an origin of Hypoptopomatinae, Neoplecostominae, and Otothyrinae during the Lower Eocene in the Atlantic Coastal Drainages, from which it is possible to infer several dispersal events to adjacent river basins during the Neogene. In conclusion we infer a strong influence of river capture in: (1) the accumulation of modern clade species-richness values; (2) the formation of the modern basin-wide species assemblages, and (3) the presence of many low-diversity, early-branching lineages restricted to the Atlantic Coastal Drainages. We further infer the importance of headwater stream capture and marine transgressions in shaping patterns in the distributions of Hypoptopomatinae, Neoplecostominae and Otothyrinae throughout South America.     

Spermiogenesis and sperm ultrastructure in ten species of Loricariidae (Siluriformes, Teleostei)

The current study describes the ultrastructural characteristics of spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis, and spermatozoa in specimens of siluriform taxa Neoplecostominae, Hypoptopomatinae, Otothyrinae, Loricariinae, and Hypostominae. Our data show that the characteristics of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis and spermatozoa ultrastructure of Neoplecostominae are more common to Hypoptopomatinae and Otothyrinae than to Loricariinae and Hypostominae. Furthermore, Loricariinae and Hypostominae have more characteristics in common than with any other group of Loricariidae. These data reinforce the phylogenetic hypotheses of relationships among the subfamilies of Loricariidae. Considering the available data in Loricarioidei, Loricariidae presents ultrastructural characteristics of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis that are also observed in Astroblepidae, its sister group. However, the most of the characteristics of spermatozoa ultrastructure found in Astroblepidae are also observed in Scoloplacidae, the sister group of a clade composed of Astroblepidae and Loricariidae.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the loricariid subfamily Hypoptopomatinae (Pisces: Siluroidei: Loricariidae), with comments on generic diagnoses and geographic distribution

A survey of 55 osteological and myological features provided the basis for a phylogenetic analysis of the genera of the loricariid subfamily Hypoptopomatinae. Eleven genera are recognized. Aceslridium, Hypoptopoma, Microlepidogaster, Otocinclus (sensu stricto), Otothyris, Oxyropsis, Par otocinclus, Pseudotocinclus, Schizolecis and an unnamed new genus from Venezuela are each hypothesized as monophyletic on the basis of at least one uniquely derived, unreversed character stale. Pseudotothyris is diagnosed by one character state representing evolutionary convergence. Otocinclus , as presently defined (Isbriicker, 1980), is paraphyletic. Species related to Otocinclus vestitus , the type species, are more closely related to other Hypoptopomatinae than to other Otocinclus species. The hypothesis of generic relationships described herein is based on the consensus among three equally parsimonious trees of length 89 steps (c = 0.652). Distribution of character states on that tree and character-state evolution are discussed in terms of support for each lineage. Thirty-three trees were found one step longer (length = 90, c = 0.644) than the shortest, most parsimonious trees. The consensus among these 33 trees revealed two additional unresolved polychotomies involving members of the tribe Otothyrini and a clade composed of Hypoptopoma, Oxyropsis and Aceslridium. A preliminary framework for the analysis of historical biogeography of the Hypoptopomatinae is discussed.     

Preliminary morphological analysis of relationships between the spider wasp subfamilies (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): revisiting an old problem

No qualitative cladistic analysis has been performed previously for the subfamily classification of Pompilidae (Hymenoptera). In 1994 Shimizu proposed six subfamilies, but their validity and relationships remain inconclusive. The objective of this study was to perform a quantitative analysis of phylogenetic relationships of the Pompilidae, with emphasis on testing the validity of proposed subfamilies. Two cladistic analyses were performed based on morphological evidence. First, a maximum-parsimony analysis of Shimizu's original morphological data matrix (72 taxa by 54 characters) was conducted, with the data subjected to a heuristic search for the first time with phylogenetic software. The resulting strict-consensus cladogram yielded a monophyletic Ceropalinae that was sister group to a large polytomy containing members of the remaining five subfamilies. In a second analysis, several of Shimizu's characters were re-examined, and new characters and more taxa were added to the data set. Terminal taxa were coded as species rather than as generic abstractions, and 20 additional morphological characters were introduced. The analysis was based on 77 morphological characters derived from the adults of 84 taxa. This second analysis suggested that Notocyphinae sensu Shimizu (1994) was nested within Pompilinae and that Epipompilinae sensu Shimizu (1994) was nested within Ctenocerinae; neither should retain their status as a separate subfamily. Lastly, Chirodamus s .s., which historically has been a member of the Pepsinae, is placed within the Pompilinae with reservations rather than erecting a new subfamily. After these allowances were made, a strict consensus tree gave the following relationships: (Ceropalinae + (Pepsinae + (Ctenocerinae + Pompilinae))).     

The interrelationships of proseriata (Platyhelminthes: seriata) tested with molecules and morphology

Proseriate flatworms are common members of the interstitial benthic fauna worldwide, predominantly occupying marine environments. As minute animals, having relatively few characters useful for cladistic analysis, they have been difficult to present in a phylogenetic framework using morphology alone. Here we present a new morphological matrix consisting of 16 putatively homologous characters and two molecular data sets to investigate further this major group of free-living members of the Platyhelminthes. Complete 18S rDNA (representing 277 parsimony-informative characters) from 17 ingroup taxa and partial 28S rDNA spanning variable expansion regions D1 to D3 and D1 to D6 (representing 219 and 361 parsimony-informative characters, respectively) from 27 and 14 ingroup taxa, respectively, were determined and aligned as complementary data sets. Morphological and molecular data sets were analyzed separately and together to determine underlying phylogenetic patterns and to resolve conflict between published scenarios based on morphology alone. The monophyly of the Proseriata cannot be confirmed categorically with any of these data sets. However, the constituent taxa are confirmed as basal members of the Neoophora, and a sister group relationship with Tricladida is rejected. Similarly, the monophyly of one of the two subtaxa of the Proseriata, the Lithophora, could not be confirmed with molecules. Concerning intragroup relationships, we could reject one of the two phylogenetic trees formerly proposed, as well as the clade Otoplanidae + Coelogynoporidae. However, a clade Otoplanidae + Archimonocelididae + Monocelididae (to which the Monotoplanidae belong) was supported, and the position of the genus Calviria shifted from the Archimonocelididae to the Coelogynoporidae.     

The systematics of Mantodea revisited: an updated classification incorporating multiple data sources (Insecta: Dictyoptera)

After a brief synopsis of the history of mantodean classification, a re-organized systematic arrangement of extant praying mantids is provided. To overcome past homoplasy problems, a phylogenetic framework based on male genital structure was used, supplemented by published morphological, chromosomal and molecular data. As already noticed by previous authors, external morphology is highly homoplastic and does not provide useful systematic tools above subfamily level. In contrast, the morphology of male external genitalia is largely congruent with the results of recent molecular phylogenies, but contradicts the most widely used past systems. Additionally, some genital structures widely used for taxonomic purposes could be shown to be not homologous, most notably the distal process. Evolutionary transitions of the distal process and the phalloid apophysis across the mantodean phylogenetic tree are identified and named. The phalloid apophysis of many derived mantodeans shows a tendency towards bifurcation into an anterior and a posterior lobe. This and other observed genital traits are hypothesized to be an adaptation of males towards a stable copulatory grasp in groups exhibiting increased sexual dimorphism, associated with an increased risk for the male to be cannibalized during copulation. Genital characters allowed most genera to be unambiguously assigned to the major clades (superfamilies) recovered by our genital and previous molecular data. The few exceptions concern genera with secondarily simplified genitalia lacking diagnostic structures. Taxonomic literature is very heterogeneous, and several subfamilies yet lacking any modern revisionary treatment will need further refinement. To account for phylogenetic constraints, i.e. correct for past polyphyletic groupings, the number of families was elevated to 29, and the number of subfamilies to 60. We establish the new family Leptomantellidae, the new subfamilies Brancsikiinae and Deiphobinae, the new tribes Leptomiopterygini, Hagiomantini, Gonypetellini, Bolbellini, Epsomantini, Neomantini, Amantini, Armenini, Danuriellini, Deiphobini, Cotigaonopsini, Didymocoryphini, Oxyelaeini, Heterochaetulini, Rhodomantini and Pseudoxyopsidini, and the new subtribes Amphecostephanina, Bolbina, Tricondylomimina, Gonypetyllina, Antistiina, Toxomantina and Tarachomantina. New morphological diagnoses are provided for the currently recognized families. Despite a few yet to be solved problems, this work offers the urgently needed working base for future studies in Mantodean systematics, life history and ecology.     

Morphology and biogeography of Apiaceae subfamily Saniculoideae as inferred by phylogenetic analysis of molecular data

The phylogenetic placements of several African endemic genera at the base of Apiaceae subfamilies Saniculoideae and Apioideae have revolutionized ideas of relationships that affect hypotheses of character evolution and biogeography. Using an explicit phylogeny of subfamily Saniculoideae, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of phenotypic characters traditionally important in classification, identified those characters most useful in supporting relationships, and inferred historical biogeography. The 23 characters examined include those of life history, vegetative morphology, inflorescences, and fruit morphology and anatomy. These characters were optimized over trees derived from maximum parsimony analysis of chloroplast DNA trnQ-trnK sequences from 94 accessions of Apiaceae. The results revealed that many of these characters have undergone considerable modification and that traditional assumptions regarding character-state polarity are often incorrect. Infrasubfamilial relationships inferred by molecular data are supported by one to five morphological characters. However, none of these morphological characters support the monophyly of subfamilies Saniculoideae or Apioideae, the clade of Petagnaea, Eryngium and Sanicula, or the sister-group relationship between Eryngium and Sanicula . Southern African origins of Saniculoideae and of its tribes Steganotaenieae and Saniculeae are supported based on dispersal-vicariance analysis.     

Morphological Characters Are Compatible with Mitogenomic Data in Resolving the Phylogeny of Nymphalid Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea: Nymphalidae)

Nymphalidae is the largest family of butterflies with their phylogenetic relationships not adequately approached to date. The mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of 11 new nymphalid species were reported and a comparative mitogenomic analysis was conducted together with other 22 available nymphalid mitogenomes. A phylogenetic analysis of the 33 species from all 13 currently recognized nymphalid subfamilies was done based on the mitogenomic data set with three Lycaenidae species as the outgroups. The mitogenome comparison showed that the eleven new mitogenomes were similar with those of other butterflies in gene content and order. The reconstructed phylogenetic trees reveal that the nymphalids are made up of five major clades (the nymphaline, heliconiine, satyrine, danaine and libytheine clades), with sister relationship between subfamilies Cyrestinae and Biblidinae, and most likely between subfamilies Morphinae and Satyrinae. This whole mitogenome-based phylogeny is generally congruent with those of former studies based on nuclear-gene and mitogenomic analyses, but differs considerably from the result of morphological cladistic analysis, such as the basal position of Libytheinae in morpho-phylogeny is not confirmed in molecular studies. However, we found that the mitogenomic phylogeny established herein is compatible with selected morphological characters (including developmental and adult morpho-characters).     

Comparative cytogenetic analysis of eleven species of subfamilies Neoplecostominae and Hypostominae (Siluriformes: Loricariidae)

The family Loricariidae with about 690 species divided into six subfamilies, is one of the world’s largest fish families. Recent studies have shown the existence of several problems in the definition of natural groups in the family, which has made the characterization of the subfamilies and even of some genera quite difficult. With the main objective of contributing for a better understanding of the relationships between loricariids, cytogenetic analysis were conducted with two species of Neoplecostominae and nine species of Hypostominae that, according to morphological and molecular data, may belong to a new monophyletic unit. The results obtained showed a marked chromosomal conservation with the presence of 2n = 54 chromosomes and single interstitial Ag-NORs in all species analyzed. Considering that Neoplecostominae is the primitive sister-group of all other loricariids, with exception of Lithogeneinae, this karyotypic structure may represent the primitive condition for the family Loricariidae. The cytogenetic characteristics partaken by the species of Neoplecostominae and Hypostominae analyzed in the present study reinforce the hypothesis that the species of both these subfamilies might belong to a natural group.     

Larval morphology and biology of oxycorynine weevils and the higher phylogeny of Belidae (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea)

Phylogenetic relationships among members of the family Belidae (Curculionoidea) were reconstructed through cladistic analysis using 58 characters and 17 terminals. The characters were from larval morphology (30), adult morphology (25) and biology regarding larval host-plants and feeding habits (three). They were scored for exemplar taxa in 17 genera, representing different belid subfamilies and tribes, plus two outgroup taxa in Megalopodidae and Nemonychidae. The sampled genera included all those for which larval and adult information is available, and two known only from adults. New information on the larvae and biology of two oxycorynines is provided. These are the Chilean Oxycraspedus cribricollis , whose larvae live in decayed female strobili of the gymnosperm Araucaria araucana , and Hydnorobius hydnorae from Argentina, whose larvae, described and illustrated in the present paper, develop inside the flower and fruit bodies of Prosopanche americana (Hydnoraceae), a root-parasitic angiosperm. The relationships proposed by the single optimal cladogram resulting from simultaneous analysis of all taxa and characters are recovered by one of three optimal cladograms based on the larval data set alone. The cladogram justifies a revised classification of Belidae in two sister subfamilies: Belinae (with tribes Pachyurini, Agnesiotidini and Belini) and Oxycoryninae (with tribes Oxycorynini and Aglycyderini). It summarizes larval and adult synapomorphies defining the family Belidae, subfamilies and tribes. Based on the phylogenetic tree, the evolution of biological traits is traced. Larval development in vegetative organs of conifers is ancestral in Belidae. A shift to reproductive structures characterizes the Oxycorynini, a habit which was conserved while several shifts to distantly related host-plant groups occurred.     

The phylogenetic relationships among non-diplomystid catfishes as inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences; the search for the ictalurid sister taxon (Otophysi: Siluriformes)

The relationships among families of catfishes are poorly understood and have yet to be the subject of a comprehensive investigation with molecular data. Existing phylogenetic hypotheses are based on morphological data and incompletely resolved. This study analyzed complete sequences of mitochondrial gene cytochrome b for 170 species from 29 of 33 extant families, and focused on the relationships of Ictaluridae to other catfishes. In addition to previous phylogenetic studies, the fossil record, paleogeography, biogeography, and distribution of extant catfish families collectively suggest the location (if extant) of the ictalurid sister taxon to be Northern or Eastern Asia. Of the extant catfishes currently native to this area and included in this analysis, parsimony and Bayesian likelihood analyses recovered Cranoglanis bouderius as the most proximal sister taxon of Ictaluridae. Seemingly, ictalurids and cranoglanidids represent another biogeographic component linking freshwater fishes of North America and eastern Asia, e.g., catostomids and paddlefishes. The results coupled with present-day catfish distributions and inferences from the fossil record collectively suggest the ancestor of Ictaluridae to have invaded freshwaters of North America at the close of the Cretaceous through northeastern Asia and northwestern North America. Other superfamilial nodes supported the results of previous phylogenetic studies of narrower taxonomic scope. Several novel relationships were recovered (including a clade composed of Pimelodidae, Pseudopimelodidae, and Heptapteridae) and these along with sources of systematic error are discussed. A broad sampling of Bagridae permitted an examination of intergeneric relationships within this family and in light of recent morphological and molecular studies.     

Phylogeny of the grasshopper family Pyrgomorphidae (Caelifera,Orthoptera) based on morphology

The family P yrgomorphidae (O rthoptera: C aelifera) is considered one of the most colourful grasshopper families, which contains about 500 species distributed worldwide. Commonly referred to as gaudy or bush grasshoppers, many pyrgomorphs are known to be aposematic and capable of sequestering plant secondary compounds. Several species are considered important agricultural pests, while some species are culturally important. Nevertheless, the phylogeny of this family has never been proposed using modern cladistic methods. In this study, we present a phylogenetic analysis of P yrgomorphidae, based on 119 morphological characters with 269 character states, covering 28 out of 31 current recognized tribes. We recovered the monophyly of the family and one of the two currently recognized subfamilies, O rthacridinae. P yrgomorphinae was recovered as paraphyletic. Based on the most parsimonious tree, we propose four main clades and discuss the biology and biogeography of members of these clades. This is the first step towards building a natural classification for P yrgomorphidae, which is an excellent model system for studying the evolution of interesting traits such as wing development, warning coloration and chemical defence.     

Phylogeny and classification of Ranunculales: Evidence from four molecular loci and morphological data

Previous phylogenetic analyses of Ranunculales, which have mostly been focused on an individual family and were based on molecular data alone, have recovered three main clades within the order. However, support for relationships among these three clades was weak. Earlier hypotheses were often hampered by limited taxon sampling; to date less than one-tenth of the genera in the order have been sampled. In this study, we used a greatly enlarged taxon sampling (105 species, representing 99 genera of all seven families in the order). Our study is, furthermore, the first to employ morphology (65 characters) in combination with sequence data from four genomic regions, including plastid rbcL, matK and trnL-F, and nuclear ribosomal 26S rDNA to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships within Ranunculales. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference were performed on the individual and combined data sets. Our analyses concur with those of previous studies, but in most cases provide stronger support and better resolution for relationships among the three main clades retrieved. The first, comprised solely of the monogeneric family Eupteleaceae, is the earliest-diverging lineage. The second clade is composed exclusively of taxa of Papaveraceae, which is sister to the third clade, the core Ranunculales, comprising the other five families of the order. Circaeasteraceae and Lardizabalaceae form a strongly supported clade. Pteridophyllum is supported as sister to Hypecoum, contradicting the viewpoint that the former is the earliest-diverging genus in Papaveraceae. Glaucidium is basalmost in Ranunculaceae. Within this phylogenetic framework, the evolution of selected characters is inferred and diagnostic morphological characters at different taxonomic levels are identified and discussed. Based on both morphological and molecular evidence, a classification outline for Ranunculales is presented, including the proposal of two new subfamilies, Menispermoideae and Tinosporoideae in Menispermaceae and a new tribe, Callianthemeae, for the genus Callianthemum (Ranunculaceae).     

Cladistic analysis of self‐grooming indicates a single origin of eusociality in corbiculate bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Behavioural traits have been used extensively in recent years as an important character source for making phylogenetic inferences. The phylogenetic positions of the members of the Apini subtribe are increasingly being debated, and new characters must be examined. We analysed the presence and absence of certain behavioural patterns, as well as the sequences of some of these patterns, to generate 79 characters. Eleven species comprised the ingroup, and Xylocopini comprised the outgroup. Parsimony analysis showed that the most parsimonious tree was (Euglossina(Bombina(Apina+Meliponina))). This topology is consistent with most studies that use morphological data and the few that use behavioural data, which suggests that advanced eusociality arose only once in a common ancestor of the clade Apina plus Meliponina; however, this hypothesis is inconsistent with our molecular data. Thus we considered behavioural, molecular, and morphological data and recovered the same topology, in which eusociality has a single origin in corbiculate bees.     

Phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic ranking of pipizine flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) with implications for the evolution of aphidophagy

The taxonomic rank and phylogenetic relationships of the pipizine flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae: Pipizini) were estimated based on DNA sequence data from three gene regions (COI, 28S and 18S) and 111 adult morphological characters. Pipizini has been treated as a member of the subfamily Eristalinae based on diagnostic adult morphological characteristics, while the larval feeding mode and morphology is shared with members of the subfamily Syrphinae. We analysed each dataset, both separately and combined, in a total evidence approach under maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. To evaluate the influence of different alignment strategies of rDNA 28S and 18S genes on the resulting topologies, we compared the topologies inferred from a multiple alignment using fast Fourier transform (MAFFT) program with those topologies resulting from aligning the secondary structure of these rDNA genes. Total evidence analyses resolved pipizines as a sister group of the subfamily Syrphinae. Although the structural alignment and the MAFFT alignment differed in the inferred relationships of some clades and taxa, there was congruence in the placement of pipizines. The homogeneous morphology of the Pipizini clade in combination with their unique combination of characters among the Syrphidae suggest a change of rank to subfamily. Thus, we propose to divide Syrphidae into four subfamilies, including the subfamily Pipizinae stat. rev.     

New genus of Cupressaceae from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia (Argentina) fills a gap in the evolution of the ovuliferous complex in the family

The conifer family Cupressaceae encompasses seven subfamilies. Five of them were once considered to constitute the family Taxodiaceae, later eliminated because of its paraphyletic nature but remaining as an informal category for early-diverging Cupressaceae lineages. Among the taxodiaceous subfamilies, Athrotaxoideae shows a unique morphology in its ovuliferous complexes (OCs) and a phylogenetically unexplored fossil record. We describe the new genus and species Patagotaxodia lefipanensis, based on OC adpressions associated with leafy branches collected at the Maastrichtian section of the Lefipán Formation (Patagonia, Argentina), and we refer it to Athrotaxoideae. We include Patagotaxodia in total evidence phylogenetic analysis to test its affinity, and we recover it within the subfamilies Athrotaxoideae or Cunninghamioideae. However, we argue that the characters supporting the athrotaxoid affinity are more meaningful in a taxodiaceous systematic context. This placement is also supported by taxon inclusion-exclusion experiments. We discuss the position of other Cretaceous athrotaxoid records. With basis on the morphological insights provided by the OC morphology of extant and extinct Athrotaxoideae, we study the evolution of the OC morphology in the family in a phylogenetic context and discuss the results in the light of the fossil record of the family. We discuss how and when the different morphologies appeared in the family. Based on phylogenetic, temporal, morphological, and ontogenetic evidence, we conclude that the OC morphology shown by the subfamily Athrotaxoideae is intermediate between two of the most common morphologies within extant and extinct Cupressaceae species, one of which would show adaptative advantages over basal morphologies.     

Phylogenetic synthesis of morphological and molecular data reveals new insights into the higher‐level classification of Tipuloidea (Diptera)

Tipuloidea, the crane flies, are a diverse lineage of true flies (Insecta: Diptera) whose phylogenetic classification and taxonomy remain a challenge. Here we present the results of a quantitative phylogenetic analysis of Tipuloidea based on combined morphological characters (adult, larvae and pupae) and nuclear gene sequence data (28S rDNA and CAD). Forty‐five species, from 44 genera and subgenera, were sampled, representing the four putative families of Tipuloidea (Cylindrotomidae, Limoniidae, Pediciidae and Tipulidae sensu stricto). Analyses of individual datasets, although differing in overall topology, support the monophyly of several major lineages within Tipuloidea. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses using individual morphological and molecular datasets resulted in incongruent topologies. Increased resolution and tree support was obtained when both datasets (morphology and genes) were combined, in both combined evidence parsimony and Bayesian analyses, than when analysed separately. The recovered consensus phylogeny was not consistent with any previously proposed Tipuloidea classification, with previous importance assigned to character states shown here to represent losses and reversals seen as a major factor influencing erroneous classification. The results provided here, together with evidence from previous analyses, were used to append the Tipuloidea classification to supported evolutionary lineages. Tipuloidea is presented as two families: Pediciidae and Tipulidae. Pediciidae is recovered as the sister group to all remaining Tipuloidea. Our current phylogenetic hypothesis is not consistent with the existing subfamilial classification of the ‘Limoniidae’, which is paraphyletic with respect to a well‐supported Tipulinae + Cylindrotominae clade, whereas the three ‘limoniid’ subfamilies are para‐ or polyphyletic. The recognition of ‘Limoniidae’ as a valid monophyletic family is discouraged and the subfamilies of ‘Limoniidae’ are amended and placed within Tipulidae. A revised phylogenetic classification is proposed for the crane flies based on a synthesis of evidence from multiple genes and morphology.     

A first phylogenetic analysis of the pill millipedes of the order Glomerida,with a special assessment of mandible characters (Myriapoda,Diplopoda, Pentazonia)

The pill millipedes of the order Glomerida are a moderately diverse group with a classical Holarctic distribution pattern. Their classification is based on a typological system utilizing mainly a single character complex, the male telopods. In order to infer the apomorphies of the Glomerida, to elucidate its position in the Pentazonia, and to test the monophyly of its families and subfamilies, we conduct the first phylogenetic analysis of the order. To provide additional characters, we comparatively analyze the mandible using scanning electron microscopy. The final character matrix consists of 69 characters (11 mandible characters) and incorporates 22 species from 20 of the 34 pill millipede genera, representing all families and subfamilies, except the monotypic Mauriesiinae. Two species from each of the two other Pentazonian orders Sphaerotheriida and Glomeridesmida, as well as two Spirobolida, are included as outgroup taxa. The Glomerida are recovered as monophyletic and are supported by five apomorphies. Within the Pentazonia, the Glomeridesmida are recovered as the sister group to the classical Oniscomorpha (Sphaerotheriida + Glomerida) with weak support. The analysis provides little resolution within the Glomerida, resulting in numerous polytomies. Further morphological characters and/or the addition of molecular analyses are needed to produce a robust phylogenetic classification of the Glomerida.