Carbon footprint and land requirement for dairy herd rations: impacts of feed production practices and regional climate variations

Feed production is a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from dairy production and demands large arable and pasture acreage. This study analysed how regional conditions influence GHG emissions of dairy feed rations in a life cycle perspective, that is the carbon footprint (CF) and the land area required. Factors assessed included regional climate variations, grass/clover silage nutrient quality, feedstuff availability, crop yield and feed losses. Using the Nordic feed evaluation model NorFor, rations were optimised for different phases of lactation, dry and growing periods for older cows, first calvers and heifers by regional feed advisors and combined to annual herd rations. Feed production data at farm level were based on national statistics and studies. CF estimates followed standards for life cycle assessment and used emissions factors provided by IPCC. The functional unit was ‘feed consumption to produce 1 kg energy corrected milk (ECM) from a cow with annual milk yield of 9 900 kg ECM including replacement animals and feed losses’. Feed ration CF varied from 417 to 531 g CO₂ e/kg ECM. Grass/clover silage contributed more than 50% of total GHG emissions. Use of higher quality silage increased ration CF by up to 5% as a result of an additional cut and increased rates of synthetic N-fertiliser. Domestically produced horse bean (Vicia faba), by-products from the sugar industry and maize silage were included in the rations with the lowest CF, but horse bean significantly increased ration land requirement. Rations required between 1.4 to 2 m² cropland and 0.1 to 0.2 m²/kg semi-natural grassland per kg ECM and year. Higher yield levels reduced ration total CF. Inclusion of GHG emissions from land use change associated with Brazilian soya feed significantly increased ration CF. Ration CF and land use depended on ration composition, which was highly influenced by the regional availability and production of feedstuffs. The impact of individual feedstuffs on ration CF varies due to, for example, cultivation practices and climate conditions and feedstuffs should therefore be assessed in a ration and regional perspective before being used to decrease milk CF. Land use efficiency should be considered together with ration CF, as these can generate goal conflicts.     

Milk production is unaffected by replacing barley or sodium hydroxide wheat with maize cob silage in rations for dairy cows

Starch is an important energy-providing nutrient for dairy cows that is most commonly provided from cereal grains. However, ruminal fermentation of large amounts of easily degradable starch leads to excessive production and accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFA). VFA not only play a vital role in the energy metabolism of dairy cows but are also the main cause of ruminal acidosis and depressed feed intake. The aim of the present study was to compare maize cob silage (MCS) as an energy supplement in rations for dairy cows with highly rumen-digestible rolled barley and with sodium hydroxide wheat (SHW), which has a higher proportion of by-pass starch than barley. Two studies were carried out: (1) a production study on 45 Danish Holstein cows and (2) an intensive study to determine digestibilities, rumen fermentation patterns and methane emission using three rumen-cannulated Danish Holstein cows. Both studies were organised as a 3×3 Latin square with three experimental periods and three different mixed rations. The rations consisted of grass-clover silage and maize silage (~60% of dry matter (DM)), rapeseed cake, soybean meal, sugar beet pulp and one of three different cereals as a major energy supplement: MCS, SHW or rolled barley (~25% of DM). When MCS replaced barley or SHW as an energy supplement in the mixed rations, it resulted in a lower dry matter intake; however, the apparent total tract digestibilities of DM, organic matter, NDF, starch and protein were not different between treatments. The energy-corrected milk yield was unaffected by treatment. The fat content of the milk on the MCS ration was not different from the SHW ration, whereas it was higher on the barley ration. The protein content of the milk decreased when MCS was used in the ration compared with barley and SHW. From ruminal VFA patterns and pH measures, it appeared that MCS possessed roughage qualities with respect to rumen environment, while at the same time being sufficiently energy rich to replace barley and SHW as a major energy supplement for milk production. The environmental impact, expressed as methane emissions, was not different when comparing MCS, SHW and barley.     

广西中粮20万吨/年木薯燃料乙醇净能量分析

广西中粮20万吨/年木薯燃料乙醇装置建成后经历多次工艺改造,为了评估广西装置的能量投入/产出,利用国内已有的全生命周期模型进行了净能量分析。计算结果表明,广西装置的净能量为9.56 MJ/L乙醇。其中乙醇转化环节的能量投入占总能量投入的51.3%,而其中精馏工序仅蒸汽消耗即占乙醇转化总能耗的61.5%。副产品提供的能量可补偿5.03 MJ/L乙醇。因此,原料的综合利用是广西装置提高能源利用效率的重要措施,精馏工序的节能改造对净能量具有重要影响。最后展望了木薯燃料乙醇的发展前景。     

Investigations on the effect of the ruminal N-balance on rumen metabolism, urea content in blood serum and milk as well as some liver parameters of lactating cows

Seven dairy cows fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulae were used to investigate the influence of the amount of ruminally available N (Ruminal N-Balance, RNB) on the rumen metabolism and to answer the question on the lowest N-amount in the rumen, without negative effects on the fermentation. Animals were fed a ration on the basis of 7.9 kg corn silage and 7.2 kg concentrates related to dry matter, intended to meet the animals mean NEL and protein requirements. RNB amounted to -0.6 g/MJ ME in the basis ration. The other 3 rations were adjusted to RNB-values of -0.3, 0 and + 0.3 g/MJ ME by urea supplements in the concentrates. The increase in RNB resulted in higher NH3-N concentrations in the rumen fluid and in the duodenal digesta and higher urea concentrations in the blood and milk. The significantly highest amount of protein at the duodenum was detected when RNB showed an equilibrium (RNB = 0). The efficiency of microbial protein (MP) synthesis (gMP/kg fermented organic matter) was the same, g MP/d and g MP/MJ ME were significantly lower with RNB = -0.6g/MJ ME as compared to RNB = 0. The group with thelowest RNB showed the highest level of feedprotein degradation as well as the lowest organic matter, NDF and ADF fermentation. An effect on cholesterol, total bilirubin and gammaGT due to different RNB was not detected. The activities of GLDH and AST were highest when the RNB was -0.6 g/MJ ME. From the results, it can be concluded that significantly negative effects on rumen fermentation occur when RNB-values are below -0.3 g/MJ ME. However, a positive RNB did not increase t he degradation and synthesis capacity of the rumen micro-organisms as compared to RNB = 0.     

Effect of food limitation on food consumption and reproductive allocation by adult milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus fasciatus

Male/female pairs of adult milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus faciatus were offered reduced food rations (100 mg milkweed seeds/week, 50 mg seeds/week, and 25 mg seeds/week) at 232C, 14L : 10D photoperiod. The high rate of food consumption normally occurring during the teneral period (first 8 days posteclosion) and subsequent food consumption were reduced on both reduced rations. Initial fresh weight was lost by bugs on both reduced rations and their weekly fresh body weight tended to remain less than bugs on the 100 mg seeds/week ration.Normal onset of egg production (about 3 weeks posteclosion) was delayed 6 weeks and normal length of a female's life (13–14 weeks) was increased 7–8 weeks on the 25 mg seeds/week ration. Rate of egg production exhibited a linear decrease with decrease in food ration on both reduced rations due to an increased interclutch interval, while fresh egg weight, duration of egg stage, number of eggs/clutch and percentage of clutches containing fertile eggs were little affected.Gross egg production efficiency (efficiency of conversion of ingested food into eggs = dry mg egg production × 100/dry mg food ingested) was high on both the 100 and 50 mg seeds/week rations (27.9% and 21.1%, respectively) and low (7.7%) on the 25 mg seeds/week ration. These data are discussed in the context of the reciprocal interaction between nutrient intake and egg production.     

Effects of Ration on Growth and Reproductive Investment from Larva to Sexual Maturity in the Female Cyprinid Minnow,Tanichthys albonubes

Somatic growth and reproductive investment in female Tanichthys albonubes (Cyprinidae) individually cultured at the laboratory from larva to sexual maturity were examined under low, medium, and satiation food rations. All the 72‐day post‐hatch fish reached sexual maturity under all rations. The standard length, wet body mass, dry ovarian mass, dry liver mass, condition factor, energy content, and number of vitellogenic oocytes were all increased with ration levels. However, food conversion efficiency decreased with ration. There were no significant differences in total number of oocytes per female between rations. The species is a continuous batch‐spawner. The size‐frequency distributions of oocyte diameters showed a continuous pattern, ranging from 0.03 to 0.70 mm, at different rations. The proportion of energy intake allocated to growth decreased with ration levels. Only 3.29–4.60% of energy intake was stored in the ovary. These biological and energetic characteristics allow this fish to reach first maturity with low food intake, although it produced fewer vitellogenic oocytes at lower rations. This property enables T. albonubes survive in its native habitats where food is not only scarce, but also variable temporally and spatially. (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Life cycle assessment of cane-sugar on the island of mauritius

Goal, Scope and Background  Agricultural production includes not only crop production, but also food processing, transport, distribution, preparation, and disposal. The effects of all these must be considered and controlled if the food chain is to be made sustainable. The goal of this case study was to identify and review the significant areas of potential environmental impacts across the whole life cycle of cane sugar on the island of Mauritius. Methods  The functional unit was one tonne of exported raw sugar from the island. The life cycle investigated includes the stage of cane cultivation and harvest, cane burning, transport, fertilizer and herbicide manufacture, cane sugar manufacture and electricity generation from bagasse. Data was gathered from companies, factories, sugar statistics, databases and literature. Energy depletion, climate change, acidification, oxidant formation, nutrification, aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity were assessed. Results and Discussion  The inventory of the current sugar production system revealed that the production of one tonne of sugar requires, on average, a land area of 0.12 ha, the application of 0.84 kg of herbicides and 16.5 kg of N-fertilizer, use of 553 tons of water and 170 tonne-km of transport services. The total energy consumption is about 14235 MJ per tonne of sugar, of which fossil fuel consumption accounts for 1995 MJ and the rest is from renewable bagasse. 160 kg of CO₂ per tonne of sugar is released from fossil fuel energy use and the net avoided emissions of CO₂ on the island due to the use of bagasse as an energy source is 932,000 tonnes. 1.7 kg TSP, 1.21 kg SO₂,1.26 kgNO_xand 1.26 kg CO are emitted to the air per tonne of sugar produced. 1.7 kg N, 0.002 kg herbicide, 19.1 kg COD, 13.1 kgTSS and 0.37 kg PO₄ ^3- are emitted to water per tonne of sugar produced. Cane cultivation and harvest accounts for the largest environmental impact (44%) followed by fertilizer and herbicide manufacture (22%), sugar processing and electricity generation (20%), transportation (13%) and cane burning (1%). Nutrification is the main impact followed by acidification and energy depletion. Conclusions  There are a number of options for improvement of the environmental performance of the cane-sugar production chain. Cane cultivation, and fertilizer and herbicide manufacture, were hotspots for most of the impact categories investigated. Better irrigation systems, precision farming, optimal use of herbicides, centralisation of sugar factories, implementation of co-generation projects and pollution control during manufacturing and bagasse burning are measures that would considerably decrease resource use and environmental impacts. Recommendation and Outlook  LCA was shown to be a valuable tool to assess the environmental impacts throughout the food production chain and to evaluate government policies on agricultural production systems.     

Effects of pressed beet pulp silage inclusion in maize-based rations on performance of high-yielding dairy cows and parameters of rumen fermentation

Beet pulp contains high amounts of pectins that can reduce the risk of rumen disorders compared to using feedstuffs high in starch. The objective was to study the effects of inclusion of ensiled pressed beet pulp in total mixed rations (TMR) for high-yielding dairy cows. Two TMR containing no or about 20% (on dry matter (DM) basis) beet pulp silage were used. The beet pulp silage mainly replaced maize silage and corn cob silage. The TMR were intentionally equal in the concentrations of energy and utilisable crude protein (CP) at the duodenum. TMR were fed to 39 and 40 dairy cows, respectively, for 118 days. The average daily milk yield was about 43 kg/day. No significant differences in milk yield and milk fat or milk protein content were detected. DM intake of cows was significantly reduced by the inclusion of beet pulp silage (23.0 v. 24.5 kg/day). However, a digestibility study, separately conducted with sheep, showed a significantly higher organic matter digestibility and metabolisable energy concentration for the TMR that contained beet pulp silage. In vitro gas production kinetics indicated that the intensity of fermentation was lower in the TMR that contained beet pulp silage. In vitro production of short-chain fatty acids, studied using a Rusitec, did not differ between the TMR. However, the inclusion of beet pulp silage in the ration caused a significant reduction in the efficiency of microbial CP synthesis in vitro. The amino acid profile of microbial protein remained unchanged. It was concluded that beet pulp silage has specific effects on ruminal fermentation that may depress feed intake of cows but improve digestibility. An inclusion of beet pulp silage of up to 20% of DM in rations for high-yielding dairy cows is possible without significant effects on milk yield and milk protein or milk fat.     

Experimental Trials Assessed by Two Different Protein Evaluation Systems

Twentythree dairy cows were fed rations with different proportions of energy and digestible crude protein (DCP). When the ration was balanced for energy and DCP according to Swedish standard the cows’ milk urea concentration was 4.66-4.92 mmol/1 (95% CI of mean). With increasing intakes of DCP, fed together with standard levels of energy, the mean milk urea concentration increased in proportion to the surplus of DCP. In contrast, the concentration of urea decreased when the cows were overfed with energy at the same time as they were underfed with protein. When the rations were recalculated in accordance with the AAT/PBV system for dietary protein evaluation the 95% CI for the mean milk urea concentration of the cows receiving a balanced ration was 3.76-4.56 mmol/1. The concentration of urea was dependent primarily on the PBV. When the 2 protein evaluation systems were compared there was a strong correlation between PBV and DCP. Ammonia was the only constituent of the rumen whose concentration was strongly correlated with the milk urea concentration. Taken together with earlier data the present results suggest that a milk urea concentration between 4.0 and 5.5 mmol/1 should be regarded as normal at least when cows are fed conventional feedstuffs.     

The digestibility and nutritive value for dairy heifers of rations containing cellulose fibre

Cellulose residue (cellufiber) from an ammonium base acid sulphite paper process was accepted by dairy heifers to the extent of 40% of the dry matter of an all-roughage ration when mixed with maize (Zea mays) silage at time of feeding. No adverse physiological effects were observed during digestion trials lasting 80 days in which cattle were given successively diets containing 10, 20, 30 or 40% of the ration dry matter as cellufiber. Apparent digestibility of crude protein decreased and digestibility of crude fibre and acid detergent fibre increased as the cellufiber level in the ration increased. Digestibility coefficients of dry matter, nitrogen-free extract and gross energy were unaffected.Uniformity of values for total digestible nutrients, digestible energy and metabolizable energy and, also, of the body weight gains by the test animals indicated only small differences in nutritive value between rations. However, estimated nutritive values of ration components indicated appreciable differences. The TDN of cellufiber was 56% which was approximately equal to that of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) hay and was 82% of the value of maize silage. However, the digestible energy value of cellufiber (1.93 Mcal/kg DM) was only 77% of alfalfa hay and 69% of maize silage. Similarly, its metabolizable energe value of 1.41 Mcal/kg DM was 69% of that of alfalfa hay and 61% of that of maize silage.     

A comparison of two different approaches to inventory analysis of dairies

Two different methods for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) applied to the dairy industry was performed at two dairies. In the simplified method, total environmental loads from a dairy was registred and allocated to liquid milk. Energy and emissions are measured for each process step for the detailed method. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. The simplified method captures all energy and emissions of dairy processing, but treats the dairy as a “black box”. The energy consumption was found to be 1, 27 MJ/1 and 2,55 MJ/1 for the two dairies. By use of the detailed method it is easy to “loose” information, and it is very time consuming. The energy consumption was lower than for the simplified method. The environmental loads can on the other hand be divided on the different process steps. The main conclusion is that choice of method depends on the purpose of the LCA-study.     

Life cycle inventories for the production of sodium silicates

Soluble alkali silicate glasses, liquids and powders are an important class of primary synthetic chemicals and are produced in large quantities both in Europe and world-wide. They are utilised in a broad range of application fields, both industrial and domestic, including detergents, chemical feedstocks, paper manufacture, civil engineering and adhesives. In order to establish viable figures for the consumption of raw materials, water and energy and the emissions to air and water and solid waste generation, the production routes for five typical commercial sodium silicate products were traced back to the extraction of the relevant raw materials from the earth. Life Cycle Inventories for these products were compiled by EMPA St. Gallen / Switzerland on behalf of CEES, a Sector Group of CEFIC, using the data input based on the production of 1995 from 12 West European silicate producers covering about 93% of the total alkaline silicate production in Western Europe.     

Economics and Energy of Ethanol Production from Alfalfa, Corn, and Switchgrass in the Upper Midwest, USA

In the USA, biomass crop systems will be needed to meet future ethanol production goals. We estimated production costs, profits, and energy budgets for three potential crop systems for the Upper Midwest: continuous corn with stover harvest, an alfalfa–corn rotation with stover harvest, and switchgrass. Production costs, profits, and on-farm energy use were greatest for continuous corn, less for alfalfa–corn, and least for switchgrass. Energy to transport crops was similar for all crop systems. Both energy used to produce ethanol and energy output in ethanol was greatest for continuous corn, less for alfalfa–corn, and least for switchgrass. Co-product energy output was 32% greater for alfalfa–corn than continuous corn and 42% greater than switchgrass. Net energy produced (outputs–inputs) was greatest for switchgrass, followed by continuous corn, and then alfalfa–corn. Efficiency of energy production (outputs/inputs) was greatest for switchgrass, followed by alfalfa–corn, and then continuous corn. Our analysis emphasizes tradeoffs among crop systems. Corn may produce high rates of ethanol and net energy, but will do so least efficiently and with the greatest erosion and N leaching. Corn may have the greatest production costs, but return the greatest profit. Comparatively, alfalfa–corn will produce less ethanol and net energy, but will do so more efficiently, and with less erosion and little N leaching. Production costs, but also profits, may be less for alfalfa–corn than continuous corn. Switchgrass may produce the most net energy and will do so most efficiently and with the least erosion, but will also yield the least ethanol. Nitrogen leaching will be less for switchgrass than corn, but greater than alfalfa–corn. Switchgrass may be the least expensive to produce, but may return a profit only if selling prices or yields are high.     

Einfluß der Futterration und des Entnahmezeitpunktes von Pansensaft auf seine Zusammensetzung in Untersuchungen an Kühen

Different starch components were added to rations with maize silage measuring the influence of the supplements on the digestibility and energy content of maize silage in cattle (n = 36) and sheep (n = 36). The starch‐rich components maize, wheat, barley, oat, cassava meal and potatoe starch were added to the total rations on average of 33%. All supplements were ground (sieve of 2.5 mm), additionally, wheat was added in extruded or crushed form. All rations including the control ration without starch components were supplemented with soybean meal to an average crude protein content of 12.4% DM. The mean starch content of the total rations was 42% DM.

The supplementation of maize silage with the different starch components increased the digestibility of the organic matter of all rations on average only slightly from 77% to 78% in cattle, while the mean digestibility in sheep rised from 74% to 79% more pronounced. However, the influence of the different starch components on the digestibility was similiar for both ruminants. The supplementation with the ground, crushed or extruded wheat, with barley and with oats impaired the digestibility of the crude fibre of the total ration and of the maize silage, respectively. Therefore, the digestibility of the organic matter of maize silage was reduced and the energy content decreased by about 6% in comparison to the control ration without starch supplementation. However, the supplementation with maize, cassava meal or pota‐toe starch had no negative effects on the digestiblity and energy content of maize silage.     

Environmental life cycle assessment of a dairy product: the yoghurt

Purpose

The dairy sector covers multiple activities related to milk production and treatment for alimentary uses. Different dairy products are available in the markets, with yoghurt being the second most important in terms of production. The goal of this study was to analyse from a cradle-to-grave approach the environmental impacts and energy balance derived from the yoghurt (solid, stirred and drinking yoghurts) manufacture process in a specific dairy factory processing 100 % Portuguese raw milk.

Methods

The standard framework of life cycle assessment (LCA) was followed and inventory data were collected on site in the dairy factory and completed using the literature and databases. The following impact categories were evaluated adopting a CML method: abiotic depletion (ADP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), global warming (GWP), ozone layer depletion (ODP), land competition (LC) and photochemical oxidants formation (POFP), with the energy analysis carried out based on the cumulative non-renewable fossil and nuclear energy demand (CED). A mass allocation approach was considered for the partitioning of the environmental burdens between the different products obtained since not only yoghurts are produced but also dairy fodder.

Results and discussion

The key processes from an environmental point of view were identified. Some of the potential results obtained were in line with other specific related studies where dairy systems were assessed from an LCA perspective. The production of the milk-based inputs (i.e. raw milk, concentrated and powdered milk) was the main factor responsible of the environmental loads and energy requirements, with remarkable contributions of 91 % of AP, 92 % of EP and 62 % of GWP. Other activities that have important environmental impacts include the production of the energy requirements in the dairy factory, packaging materials production and retailing. Potential alternatives were proposed in order to reduce the contributions to the environmental profile throughout the life cycle of the yoghurt. These alternatives were based on the minimisation of milk losses, reductions of distances travelled and energy consumption at retailing and household use, as well as changes to the formulation of the animal feed. All of these factors derived from light environmental reductions.

Conclusions

The main reductions of the environmental impact derived from yoghurt production can be primarily obtained at dairy farms, although important improvements could also be made at the dairy factory.     

Spent tea leaf as a ruminant feed

Spent tea leaf (STL), a residue from the manufacture of instant tea, has 30% crude protein and contains significant quantities of essential amino acids. Because of its high polyphenol content it may not be suitable for pigs and poultry, but in view of the more tolerant nature of microflora to tannins it could be a potential source of protein for ruminants.Three trials were conducted with cattle or sheep to evaluate STL as a ruminant feed. In Trial I, three concentrate rations prepared with 0, 10 or 20% STL were found to be readily acceptable by bull calves 6–8 months of age, without any harmful effects upon their health. In Trial II, four concentrate rations having 0, 10, 14 or 18% STL were found to be equally digestible by sheep.In Trial III, groups of 7 male Jersey calves, 5 months old, were given 0, 10 or 18% STL in concentrate rations, and rate of growth and concentrate conversion efficiency were investigated. There was no significant difference between the groups in live-weight gain, which suggests that up to 18% STL may be used in concentrate rations without apparent health problems. The average daily gains for the 3 rations were 288, 274 and 271 g, respectively. On the basis of cost/kg live-weight gain, a ration containing 18% STL would be 25% cheaper than a standard concentrate ration.     

Small grains for starch production

Wheat, sorghum, rice, barley, oat and rye grains are actual or potential raw materials for the industrial production of starch, but only the first three are so used. All six contain about 60% to 70% starch, and yield oil and protein as valuable byproducts of starch manufacture. Successful competition of these grains with the present major industrial sources of starch— corn, potatoes and cassava— depends on a number of factors, including comparative costs of the raw materials, efficiency of processing methods, and value of the byproducts.     

Integrating life cycle costs and environmental impacts of composite rail car-bodies for a Korean train

Background, aim, and scope  A coupled Life Cycle Costing and life cycle assessment has been performed for car-bodies of the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) project using European and Korean databases, with the objective of assessing environmental and cost performance to aid materials and process selection. More specifically, the potential of polymer composite car-body structures for the Korean Tilting Train eXpress (TTX) has been investigated. Materials and methods  This assessment includes the cost of both carriage manufacturing and use phases, coupled with the life cycle environmental impacts of all stages from raw material production, through carriage manufacture and use, to end-of-life scenarios. Metallic carriages were compared with two composite options: hybrid steel-composite and full-composite carriages. The total planned production for this regional Korean train was 440 cars, with an annual production volume of 80 cars. Results and discussion  The coupled analyses were used to generate plots of cost versus energy consumption and environmental impacts. The results show that the raw material and manufacturing phase costs are approximately half of the total life cycle costs, whilst their environmental impact is relatively insignificant (3–8%). The use phase of the car-body has the largest environmental impact for all scenarios, with near negligible contributions from the other phases. Since steel rail carriages weigh more (27–51%), the use phase cost is correspondingly higher, resulting in both the greatest environmental impact and the highest life cycle cost. Compared to the steel scenario, the hybrid composite variant has a lower life cycle cost (16%) and a lower environmental impact (26%). Though the full composite rail carriage may have the highest manufacturing cost, it results in the lowest total life cycle costs and lowest environmental impacts. Conclusions and recommendations  This coupled cost and life cycle assessment showed that the full composite variant was the optimum solution. This case study showed that coupling of technical cost models with life cycle assessment offers an efficient route to accurately evaluate economic and environmental performance in a consistent way.     

The combined effect of feeding time and ration on growth performance and nitrogen metabolism of greenback flounder

Greenback flounder Rhombosolea tapirina ( c. 2 g) fed to satiation had significantly ( P <0·01) higher feed consumption in the evening than in the morning whereas there was no difference between feeding times for flounder fed restricted rations (1 or 2% body weight per day) because they consumed all of the ration. Differences in growth performance were due to feeding time and ration. Carcass moisture, lipid and energy content were significantly ( P <0·001) different between rations; length gain was significantly affected by feeding time ( P <0·05) and ration ( P <0·001); weight gain showed a significant ( P <0·001) interaction between feeding time and ration. The relationship between feed consumption and specific growth rate showed that the exponential gradient was significantly higher ( P <0·01) for the evening fed fish and indicated feed efficiency for evening fed fish increased as feed consumption increased. Urea excretion increased from 12–20 to 58–63% of total nitrogen excretion at the 1 and 3% rations, respectively. Ammonia and urea excretion were significantly affected by ration ( P <0·001) and feeding time ( P <0·05). Fish fed the 2% ration in the evening had higher growth efficiency and significantly ( P <0·01) lower rates of urea excretion than fish fed 2 or 3% ration in the morning. It is suggested that the higher energetic costs associated with differences in ammonia and urea excretion contributed to differences in growth efficiency.     

Effects of partially replacing barley or corn with raw and micronised CDC SO-I oats on productive performance of lactating dairy cows

Recently, a new genotype of oat (cv. CDC SO-I, containing low-hull lignin and high-fat groat), has been developed. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of partially replacing barley and corn with the new oat and its micronisation on lactating performance of dairy cows. In a double 4 x 4 Latin square design, eight lactating dairy cows (732 +/- 46 kg body weight [BW]; parity 4 +/- 2) received total mixed rations with a forage-to-concentrate ratio of 50:50 (DM basis). The four treatments were: T1, barley only (control); T2, raw oat, replacing 42% barley of T1; T3, micronised oat, replacing 42% barley of T1; and T4, raw oat and corn blend, replacing 100% barley of T1. The results showed that dairy cows fed the new oats (T2, T3) produced more fat (p < 0.05) and more fat corrected milk (p < 0.10) than cows fed barley only (T1). The performance of cows fed the new oat and corn blend (T4) was not significantly different from other treatments. The micronisation significantly reduced protein degradability (74 vs. 63%,p < 0.05), but increased starch degradability (87 vs. 93%,p < 0.05) of the new oat. However, the overall results suggested that micronisation did not show a significant impact on milk production. The newly developed CDC SO-I oat can replace 42% barley (in T1) as a concentrate supplement in dairy total mixed rations with an increased yield of milk fat and fat corrected milk.