Ethics, Economics, and Aids in Africa

AIDS in the Twenty-First Century: Disease and Globalization , by Tony Barnett and Alan Whiteside. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2002. 416 pp. US$19.95 (paperback)
The Moral Economy of AIDS in South Africa , by Nicoli Nattrass. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2004. 222 pp. US$30.00 (paperback)     

The chewing brush,especially in Africa

Lætadianism—the religious revival as it appeared in Northern Norway in the second half of the last century—is analyzed as a form of symbolic opposition (Schwimmer 1972) from the Sámi and the Kvens against the Norwegian policy of cultural and economic integration. The expansion of Norwegian administration and economy from the middle of the 19th century, established new status‐sets and fields of interaction within agriculture, school‐system and health service. Events and interaction within each of these fields created circumstances for what took place in the actor's other relationship and this dynamic is thus analysed as implication systems (Grenhaug 1978).

All interaction with Norwegian society was built upon Norwegian statuses and values and the Sámi and Kvens established a new definition of the situation by reversing the Norwegian standards through the medium of Christianity. Their material poverty was converted into spiritual wealth and thus a different inter‐ethnic context of interaction surfaced. This new opportunity situation (Barth 1966) made it possible to reject the Norwegian society which earlier had rejected them.     

The genusDaphnia in Cameroon,West Africa

Three species of the genusDaphnia are recorded from Cameroon.Daphnia obtusa was found in a single lake out of 37 sampled.Daphnia laevis was found in the same lake asD. obtusa and in two other lakes, whileD. rosea was found in three other lakes. All the lakes were at altitudes over 1 000 m. The records can be interpreted either as altitudinal survivals of continually dispersing species, or as relicts in an area whereDaphnia is usually very rare or absent.     

Palatal rugae in Swazi, southern Africa

In a sample of Swazi (47 males and 70 females) the palatal rugae were studied and the results compared with those in the literature. The rugae are generally strong and show considerable complexity. Strength of ridges is associated with arch height, which suggests common factors in development.     

Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa

Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa . Adam Ashforth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. 396 pp.     

Women, Horticulture, and Society in Sub-Saharan Africa

Considerable power was probably available to either sex earlier in human history. Males were largely concerned with the prestige sphere based on control of special goods usually involving mobility and risk taking. Females were largely concerned with the subsistence sphere. Their access to power is not based on this economic function but on their generative powers. In small-scale early societies both male and female spheres were probably very important in the social and political life of the group. Historically, as scarcity of material resources began to develop and as local units increased in size, male interest shifted to the now scarcer land. With their relatively greater mobility than females, males could deal with larger political units with greater ease. This shift was not in conflict with any other male roles, whereas for females such a shift was in conflict with their generative function.     

Risk, Uncertainty, and Violence in Eastern Africa

Previous research on warfare in a worldwide sample of societies by Ember and Ember (Journal of Conflict Resolution, 36, 242–262, 1992a) found a strong relationship between resource unpredictability (particularly food scarcity caused by natural disasters) in nonstate, nonpacified societies and overall warfare frequency. Focusing on eastern Africa, a region frequently plagued with subsistence uncertainty as well as violence, this paper explores the relationships between resource problems, including resource unpredictability, chronic scarcity, and warfare frequencies. It also examines whether resource scarcity predicts more resource-taking in land, movable property, and people, as well as the commission of atrocities. Results support previous worldwide results regarding the relationship between resource unpredictability and warfare frequency. Results regarding resource-taking and atrocities are more nuanced and complex. In almost all findings, relationships are generally in opposite directions in nonstate and state societies. In post-hoc analyses, atrocities are significantly more likely to be committed in states than in nonstates.     

Cloth, Dress and Art Patronage in Africa

Cloth, Dress and Art Patronage in Africa. Judith Perani and Norma H. Wolff. New York: Berg, 1999.217 pp.     

Gender,Migration and HIV in Rural KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Objectives

Research on migration and HIV has largely focused on male migration, often failing to measure HIV risks associated with migration for women. We aimed to establish whether associations between migration and HIV infection differ for women and men, and identify possible mechanisms by which women''s migration contributes to their high infection risk.

Design

Data on socio-demographic characteristics, patterns of migration, sexual behavior and HIV infection status were obtained for a population of 11,677 women aged 15–49 and men aged 15–54, resident members of households within a demographic surveillance area participating in HIV surveillance in 2003–04.

Methods

Logistic regression was conducted to examine whether sex and migration were independently associated with HIV infection in three additive effects models, using measures of recent migration, household presence and migration frequency. Multiplicative effects models were fitted to explore whether the risk of HIV associated with migration differed for males and females. Further modeling and simulations explored whether composition or behavioral differences accounted for observed associations.

Results

Relative to non-migrant males, non-migrant females had higher odds of being HIV-positive (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.72; 95% confidence interval [1.49–1.99]), but odds were higher for female migrants (aOR = 2.55 [2.07–3.13]). Female migrants also had higher odds of infection relative to female non-migrants (aOR = 1.48 [1.23–1.77]). The association between number of sexual partners over the lifetime and HIV infection was modified by both sex and migrant status: For male non-migrants, each additional partner was associated with 3% higher odds of HIV infection (aOR = 1.03 [1.02–1.05]); for male migrants the association between number of partners and HIV infection was non-significant. Each additional partner increased odds of HIV infection by 22% for female non-migrants (aOR = 1.22 [1.12–1.32]) and 46% for female migrants (aOR = 1.46 [1.25–1.69]).

Conclusions

Higher risk sexual behavior in the context of migration increased women''s likelihood of HIV infection.     

Buchu,a new Cultivated Crop in South Africa

The farmers of South Africa hare provided the first steps in the domestication of a medicinal herb endemic to the Cape Province.     

Treatment of Cryptococcal Meningitis in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Background

Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) remains a leading cause of death for HIV-infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa. Improved treatment strategies are needed if individuals are to benefit from the increasing availability of antiretroviral therapy. We investigated the factors associated with mortality in routine care in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A prospective year long, single-center, consecutive case series of individuals diagnosed with cryptococcal meningitis 190 patients were diagnosed with culture positive cryptococcal meningitis, of whom 186 were included in the study. 52/186 (28.0%) patients died within 14 days of diagnosis and 60/186 (32.3%) had died by day 28. In multivariable cox regression analysis, focal neurology (aHR 11 95%C.I. 3.08–39.3, P<0.001), diastolic blood pressure <60 mmHg (aHR 2.37 95%C.I. 1.11–5.04, P = 0.025), concurrent treatment for tuberculosis (aHR 2.11 95%C.I. 1.02–4.35, P = 0.044) and use of fluconazole monotherapy (aHR 3.69 95% C.I. 1.74–7.85, P<0.001) were associated with increased mortality at 14 and 28 days.

Conclusions

Even in a setting where amphotericin B is available, mortality from cryptococcal meningitis in this setting is high, particularly in the immediate period after diagnosis. This highlights the still unmet need not only for earlier diagnosis of HIV and timely access to treatment of opportunistic infections, but for better treatment strategies of cryptococcal meningitis.     

Life form spectra in the Hantam-Tanqua-Roggeveld, South Africa

The Hantam-Tanqua-Roggeveld subregion is situated in an area where the Fynbos, Succulent Karoo and Nama Karoo biomes meet. Life form spectra were compiled at a species richness and vegetation cover level in order to determine the affinities of the vegetation of the subregion with respect to its Succulent Karoo, Fynbos and Nama Karoo Biome status. A percentage succulence was also calculated for both species richness and cover. Comparisons of life form spectra and succulence were made across the eight vegetation associations found in the area and across three broad vegetation groups, i.e., Mountain Renosterveld, Winter Rainfall Karoo and Tanqua Karoo. Mountain Renosterveld vegetation was characterised by high chamaephyte, cryptophyte and therophyte species contributions. Compared to the other broad vegetation groups, the Mountain Renosterveld group showed phanerophyte contributions at the vegetation cover level to be highest, but the degree of succulence was low. Winter Rainfall Karoo vegetation was co-dominated by high levels of chamaephyte, cryptophyte and therophyte species with chamaephytes dominating the vegetation cover. Succulent contributions to species richness and cover values were higher than for Mountain Renosterveld vegetation. Tanqua Karoo vegetation was dominated by chamaephyte species or co-dominated by chamaephyte and cryptophyte species with therophyte species contributions lowest of all vegetation groups. Contributions by succulent species to richness and vegetation cover were high in the Tanqua Karoo. Life form spectra of the Mountain Renosterveld associations compared poorly to other sites in the Fynbos Biome. However, the low level of succulence in the Mountain Renosterveld associations also precludes its inclusion into the Succulent Karoo Biome. The large contribution of succulent species at a species and vegetation cover level in Winter Rainfall Karoo and Tanqua Karoo associations confirms that these two groups belong to the Succulent Karoo Biome. Affinities to the Nama Karoo Biome were indicated by the low level of succulence at a vegetation cover level in one of the Winter Rainfall Karoo associations (Roggeveld Karoo).     

Urbanization, malaria transmission and disease burden in Africa

Many attempts have been made to quantify Africa's malaria burden but none has addressed how urbanization will affect disease transmission and outcome, and therefore mortality and morbidity estimates. In 2003, 39% of Africa's 850 million people lived in urban settings; by 2030, 54% of Africans are expected to do so. We present the results of a series of entomological, parasitological and behavioural meta-analyses of studies that have investigated the effect of urbanization on malaria in Africa. We describe the effect of urbanization on both the impact of malaria transmission and the concomitant improvements in access to preventative and curative measures. Using these data, we have recalculated estimates of populations at risk of malaria and the resulting mortality. We find there were 1,068,505 malaria deaths in Africa in 2000 - a modest 6.7% reduction over previous iterations. The public-health implications of these findings and revised estimates are discussed.     

Agro-industrial plantations in Central Africa,risks and opportunities

Large-scale land-based investments in Central Africa are not new, and the first decade of the twenty-first century saw renewed interest in agriculture by foreign investors. The new rush for farm land has involved new multi-national holdings in the region and sometimes in the sector. This paper analyses the recent wave of investments in farm land, and discusses their specificity, the ways the host countries deal with investors, and the impacts of these large-scale projects on livelihoods and on forest cover. It focuses on the four countries that host most of the natural forests in the Congo Basin: Cameroon, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo. The analysis was based on a historical review of the scientific literature and of media reports. Results are based on the assessment of large-scale land acquisitions for agricultural expansion and on field surveys conducted in 2012 and 2013, during which key stakeholders were interviewed in the four countries.     

Regeneration dynamics in arid subtropical thicket,South Africa

In arid environments nurse-plants modify localised habitats and create regeneration opportunities for seedlings vulnerable to hostile conditions created by biotic and abiotic factors. Facilitation is thus recognised as an important process structuring plant communities in harsh environments. Here we use spatial patterns of species association and recruitment to infer species replacement patterns in arid subtropical thicket of South Africa. Although our study site was floristically impoverished, all major plant functional groups that characterise subtropical thicket were present. Portulacaria afra clumps comprised approximately 50% of the study site by area. The mean and median clump size was 16.5 and 6.9 m², respectively, indicating the prevalence of small individuals in the population. Approximately 90% of tree seedlings were recorded under P. afra clumps and 93% of P. afra seedlings were recorded under woody shrubs. P. afra seedlings were recorded more frequently than expected beneath Rhigozum obovatum compared with other woody shrub species. No clear recruitment patterns were recorded for R. obovatum. Lycium cinereum, a woody shrub, and the stem-succulent Psilocaulon absimile were distributed more frequently on nutrient rich patches than expected and both these species are replaced by grass as the nutrient rich patch ages. Mature trees were generally recorded growing to the south of the assumed founding P. afra stem indicating that tree establishment was more frequent on the shaded side of P. afra clumps. However, most trees grew towards the sunny north and east-facing aspects. Plant species replacement patterns are facilitated by nurse-plant effects in arid subtropical thicket. These recruitment patterns together with our inferred species replacement on nutrient rich patches result in a predictable sequence of species replacement that is cyclic in nature.