Functionalization and peptide-based delivery of magnetic nanoparticles as an intracellular MRI contrast agent

We report the development of functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with a PEG-modified, phospholipid micelle coating, and their delivery into living cells. The size of the coated particles, as determined by dynamic light scattering and electron microscopy, was found to be between 12 and 14 nm. The PEG-phospholipid coating resulted in high water solubility and stability, and the functional groups of modified PEG allowed for bioconjugation of various moieties, including a fluorescent dye and the Tat peptide. Efficient delivery of the functionalized nanoparticles into living cells was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy, relaxation time measurements, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This demonstrates the feasibility of using functionalized magnetic nanoparticles with uniform (~10 nm) sizes as an MRI contrast agent for intracellular molecular imaging in deep tissue. These micelle-coated iron oxide nanoparticles offer a versatile platform for conjugation of a variety of moieties, and their small size confers advantages for intracellular molecular imaging with minimal perturbation.Abbreviations CPP cell penetrating peptide - CPMG Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill spin-echo method - CTAB cetyltrimethylammonium bromide - DLS dynamic light scattering - DMEM Dulbeccos modified Eagles medium - DSPE 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine - FCS fetal calf serum - FGM-2 fibroblast growth medium 2 - HDF human dermal fibroblast - HS horse serum - MDBK Madin–Darby bovine kidney - MIONs superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles - mMIONs micelle-coated MIONs - MRI magnetic resonance imaging - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - PEG poly(ethylene glycol) - SPDP N-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio)propionate - TCEP tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride - TEM transmission electron microscopy     

PEGylated iminodiacetic acid zinc complex stabilizes cationic RNA-bearing nanoparticles

Self-assembling nanoparticles comprising cationic polymers are of interest for the delivery of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics. Unfortunately, exposure of the nanoparticle cationic surface to plasma and plasma proteins compromises particle stability and circulating half-life. Herein, we report that improved nanoparticle stability can be achieved through temporary grafting of PEG to the nanoparticle surface. Grafting is induced through zinc complexation between PEG–IDA and the exposed polyhistidylated polylysine (H-K) cationic polymer of pre-formed nanoparticles.     

Bimodal paramagnetic and fluorescent liposomes for cellular and tumor magnetic resonance imaging

A novel bimodal fluorescent and paramagnetic liposome is described for cellular labeling. In this study, we show the synthesis of a novel gadolinium lipid, Gd.DOTA.DSA, designed for liposomal cell labeling and tumor imaging. Liposome formulations consisting of this lipid were optimized in order to allow for maximum cellular entry, and the optimized formulation was used to label HeLa cells in vitro. The efficiency of this novel bimodal Gd-liposome formulation for cell labeling was demonstrated using both fluorescence microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The uptake of Gd-liposomes into cells induced a marked reduction in their MRI T 1 relaxation times. Fluorescence microscopy provided concomitant proof of uptake and revealed liposome internalization into the cell cytosol. The optimized formulation was also found to exhibit minimal cytotoxicity and was shown to have capacity for plasmid DNA (pDNA) transfection. A further second novel neutral bimodal Gd-liposome is described for the labeling of xenograft tumors in vivo utilizing the enhanced permeation and retention effect (EPR). Balb/c nude mice were inoculated with IGROV-1 cells, and the resulting tumor was imaged by MRI using these in vivo Gd-liposomes formulated with low charge and a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) calyx for long systemic circulation. These Gd-liposomes which were less than 100 nm in size were shown to accumulate in tumor tissue by MRI, and this was also verified by fluorescence microscopy of histology samples. Our in vivo tumor imaging results demonstrate the effectiveness of MRI to observe passive targeting of long-term circulating liposomes to tumors in real time, and allow for MRI directed therapy, wherein the delivery of therapeutic genes and drugs to tumor sites can be monitored while therapeutic effects on tumor mass and/or size may be simultaneously observed, quantitated, and correlated.     

Dual-surface-modified bacteriophage MS2 as an ideal scaffold for a viral capsid-based drug delivery system

With the development of covalent modification strategies for viral capsids comes the ability to convert them into modular carrier systems for drug molecules and imaging agents. With this overall goal in mind, we have used two orthogonal modification strategies to decorate the exterior surface of genome-free MS2 capsids with PEG chains, while installing 50-70 copies of a fluorescent dye inside as a drug cargo mimic. Despite the very high levels of modification, the capsids remained in the assembled state, as determined by TEM, size-exclusion chromatography, and dynamic light scattering analysis. The ability of the polymer coating to block the access of polyclonal antibodies to the capsid surface was probed using a sandwich ELISA, which indicated a 90% reduction in binding. Further experiments indicated that biotin groups placed at the distal ends of the polymer chains were still capable of binding to streptavidin, despite their proximity to the PEG layer. Finally, a modular strategy was developed for the attachment of small-molecule targeting groups to the polymer chains through an efficient oxime formation reaction. As a result of these studies, a robust and versatile new platform has emerged for the potential delivery of therapeutic cargo.     

Mixtures of poly(triethylenetetramine/cystamine bisacrylamide) and poly(triethylenetetramine/cystamine bisacrylamide)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) for improved gene delivery

Branched disulfide-containing poly(amido ethyleneimines) (SS-PAEIs) are biodegradable polymeric gene carrier analogues of the well-studied, nondegradable, and often toxic branched polyethylenimines (bPEIs), but with distinct advantages for cellular transgene delivery. Clinical success of polycationic gene carriers is hampered by obscure design and formulation requirements. This present work reports synthetic and formulation properties for a graft copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and a branched SS-PAEI, poly(triethylentetramine/cystaminebisacrylamide) (p(TETA/CBA)). Several laboratories have previously demonstrated the advantages of PEG conjugation to gene carriers, but have also shown that PEG conjugation may perturb plasmid DNA (pDNA) condensation, thereby interfering with nanoparticle formation. With this foundation, our studies sought to mix various amounts of p(TETA/CBA) and p(TETA/CBA)-g-PEG2k to alter the relative amount of PEG in each formulation used for polyplex formation. The influence of different PEG/polycation amounts in the formulations on polymer/nucleic acid nanoparticle (polyplex) size, surface charge, morphology, serum stability and transgene delivery was studied. Polyplex formulations were prepared using p(TETA/CBA)-g-PEG2k, p(TETA/CBA), and mixtures of the two species at 10/90 and 50/50 volumetric mixture ratios (wt/wt %), respectively. As expected, increasing the amount of PEG in the formulation adversely affects polyplex formation. However, optimal polymer mixtures could be identified using this facile approach to further clarify design and formulation requirements necessary to understand and optimize carrier stability and biological activity. This work demonstrates the feasibility to easily overcome typical problems observed when polycations are modified and thus avoids the need to synthesize multiple copolymers to identify optimal gene carrier candidates. This approach may be applied to other polycation-PEG preparations to alter polyplex characteristics for optimal stability and biological activity.     

Yeast transformation process studied by fluorescence labeling technique

A new method based on fluorescence imaging and flow cytometry was developed to investigate the transformation process of Saccharomyces cerevisiae AY. Yeast and fluorescent-labeled plasmid pUC18 were used as models of cells and DNA molecules, respectively. Binding of DNA molecules to yeast cell surfaces was observed. Factors influencing DNA binding to cell surfaces were investigated. It has been found that poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) could induce DNA binding to yeast surfaces, while Li(+) showed a weak effect on the binding. When both Li(+) and PEG were used, synergetic effect occurred, resulting in the binding of pUC18 to the surface of more yeast cells compared with that in the presence of PEG or Li(+) only. It was also confirmed that heat shock, Li(+), and PEG all can increase the permeability of yeast cells. This simple method is helpful for understanding the process of yeast transformation and can be used to investigate the interaction of DNA with cell surfaces.     

Design,synthesis, and evaluation of gadolinium cationic lipids as tools for biodistribution studies of gene delivery complexes

Gadolinium-chelating cationic lipids have been synthesized to obtain lipoplexes with MRI contrast properties. These compounds were designed to follow the biodistribution of synthetic DNA for gene delivery by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. The lipid MCO-I-68 was synthesized, and chelate complexes with gadolinium were formed and characterized in terms of physicochemical and DNA binding properties. The transfection activity of MCO-I-68-Gd/DNA complexes was assayed in vitro on NIH 3T3. Different formulations of the product were tested. When up to 5% of the gadolinium lipid complexes were co-formulated with the cationic lipid RPR120535 used as a reference, the transfection levels were maintained as compared to RPR120535 alone. To date, only a liposomal formulation of a gadolinium-cationic lipid chelate without DNA had been observed using magnetic resonance imaging. In vivo intratumoral administration of MCO-I-68-Gd/DNA lipoplexes to tumor model led to an important increase of the NMR signal. It was demonstrated that the new complexes also acted as transfection carriers when they were formulated from liposomes.     

Transferrin-containing, cyclodextrin polymer-based particles for tumor-targeted gene delivery

Transferrin is a well-studied ligand for tumor targeting due to upregulation of transferrin receptors in numerous cancer cell types. Here, we report the development of a transferrin-modified, cyclodextrin polymer-based gene delivery system. The delivery system is comprised of a nanoparticle (formed by condensation of a cyclodextrin polycation with nucleic acid) that is surface-modified to display poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) for increasing stability in biological fluids and transferrin for targeting of cancer cells that express transferrin receptor. A transferrin-PEG-adamantane conjugate is synthesized for nanoparticle modification. The transferrin conjugate retains high receptor binding and self-assembles with the nanoparticles by adamantane (host) and particle surface cyclodextrin (guest) inclusion complex formation. At low transferrin modification, the particles remain stable in physiologic salt concentrations and transfect K562 leukemia cells with increased efficiency over untargeted particles. The increase in transfection is eliminated when transfections are conducted in the presence of excess free transferrin. The transferrin-modified nanoparticles are appropriate for use in the systemic delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics for metastatic cancer applications.     

Nanoparticles for drug delivery to the lungs

The lungs are an attractive route for non-invasive drug delivery with advantages for both systemic and local applications. Incorporating therapeutics with polymeric nanoparticles offers additional degrees of manipulation for delivery systems, providing sustained release and the ability to target specific cells and organs. However, nanoparticle delivery to the lungs has many challenges including formulation instability due to particle-particle interactions and poor delivery efficiency due to exhalation of low-inertia nanoparticles. Thus, novel methods formulating nanoparticles into the form of micron-scale dry powders have been developed. These carrier particles exhibit improved handling and delivery, while releasing nanoparticles upon deposition in the lungs. This review covers the development of nanoparticle formulations for pulmonary delivery as both individual nanoparticles and encapsulated within carrier particles.     

Site-specific delivery of oligonucleotides to hepatocytes after systemic administration

We previously complexed ODN with galactosylated poly( l-lysine) (Gal-PLL) to enhance its site-specific delivery to hepatocytes. To avoid the use of polycations, in this study we conjugated galactosylated poly(ethylene glycol) (Gal-PEG (MW of PEG: 3486 +/- 500 Da)) to ODN via an acid-labile ester linkage of beta-thiopropionate. Following tail vein injection into rats, Gal-PEG- 33P-ODN rapidly cleared from the circulation and 60.2% of the injected dose accumulated in the liver at 30 min postinjection, which was significantly higher than that deposited after injection of 33P-ODNs. The plasma concentration versus time profile of Gal-PEG- 33P-ODN was biphasic, with 4.38 +/- 0.36 min as t1/2 of distribution and 118.61 +/- 22.06 min as t1/2 of elimination. Prior administration of excess Gal-BSA decreased the hepatic uptake of Gal-PEG- 33P-ODN from 60.2% to 35.9%, suggesting galactose triggers the asialoglycoprotein receptor-mediated endocytosis of Gal-PEG- 33P-ODN by hepatocytes. A large proportion of the injected Gal-PEG- 33P-ODN was taken up by the hepatocytes as evidenced by determination of radioactivity in the digested liver cells upon liver perfusion and separation by centrifugation on a Nycodenz gradient. In conclusion, Gal-PEG-ODN conjugate may be used for treating a variety of liver diseases.     

Glypican-3 targeting of liver cancer cells using multifunctional nanoparticles

Imaging is essential in accurately detecting, staging, and treating primary liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma [HCC]), one of the most prevalent and lethal malignancies. We developed a novel multifunctional nanoparticle (NP) specifically targeting glypican-3 (GPC3), a proteoglycan implicated in promotion of cell growth that is overexpressed in most HCCs. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to confirm the differential GPC3 expression in two human HCC cells, Hep G2 (high) and HLF (negligible). These cells were treated with biotin-conjugated GPC3 monoclonal antibody (αGPC3) and subsequently targeted using superparamagnetic iron oxide NPs conjugated to streptavidin and Alexa Fluor 647. Flow cytometry demonstrated that only GPC3-expressing Hep G2 cells were specifically targeted using this αGPC3-NP conjugate (fourfold mean fluorescence over nontargeted NP), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) experiments showed similar findings (threefold R2 relaxivity). Confocal fluorescence microscopy localized the αGPC3 NPs only to the cell surface of GPC3-expressing Hep G2 cells. Further characterization of this construct demonstrated a negatively charged, monodisperse, 50 nm NP, ideally suited for tumor targeting. This GPC3-specific NP system, with dual-modality imaging capability, may enhance pretreatment MRI, enable refined intraoperative HCC visualization by near-infrared fluorescence, and be potentially used as a carrier for delivery of tumor-targeted therapies, improving patient outcomes.     

A pretargeted nanoparticle system for tumor cell labeling

Nanoparticle-based cancer diagnostics and therapeutics can be significantly enhanced by selective tissue localization, but the strategy can be complicated by the requirement of a targeting ligand conjugated on nanoparticles, that is specific to only one or a limited few types of neoplastic cells, necessitating the development of multiple nanoparticle systems for different diseases. Here, we present a new nanoparticle system that capitalizes on a targeting pretreatment strategy, where a circulating fusion protein (FP) selectively prelabels the targeted cellular epitope, and a biotinylated iron oxide nanoparticle serves as a secondary label that binds to the FP on the target cell. This approach enables a single nanoparticle formulation to be used with any one of existing fusion proteins to bind a variety of target cells. We demonstrated this approach with two fusion proteins against two model cancer cell lines: lymphoma (Ramos) and leukemia (Jurkat), which showed 72.2% and 91.1% positive labeling, respectively. Notably, TEM analysis showed that a large nanoparticle population was endocytosed via attachment to the non-internalizing CD20 epitope.     

A rapid method to monitor DNA precipitation onto microcarriers before particle bombardment

The binding or precipitation of DNA onto gold or tungsten microcarriers represents one of the most crucial steps for gene transfer via the particle bombardment process. We have developed a simple and rapid method to monitor DNA precipitation onto microcarriers before delivery to intact cells or tissues. Binding of DNA constructs to different microcarriers was evaluated with relative fluorescence values using a dedicated fluorometer. Significantly greater precipitation was detected using gold vs. tungsten microcarriers. Addition of glycerol resulted in a 46% increase in precipitation. A 42% difference in precipitation was observed using two different brands of polyproplyene tubes. Fluorescence values dropped 10–50% 3 hr after initial precipitation. Fluorescence values were correlated with the number of transient GUS transformants of rice (Oryza sativa, L.) cells. Precipitation with PEG gave higher fluorescent values and GUS transformants than a similar method without PEG. Results from these experiments indicate that fluorescence measurements are an effective and rapid method to monitor DNA precipitation for particle bombardment experiments.Communicated by C. Quiros     

Ultrasound-Triggered Phase Transition Sensitive Magnetic Fluorescent Nanodroplets as a Multimodal Imaging Contrast Agent in Rat and Mouse Model

Ultrasound-triggered phase transition sensitive nanodroplets with multimodal imaging functionality were prepared via premix Shirasu porous glass (SPG) membrane emulsification method. The nanodroplets with fluorescence dye DiR and SPIO nanoparticles (DiR-SPIO-NDs) had a polymer shell and a liquid perfluoropentane (PFP) core. The as-formed DiR-SPIO-NDs have a uniform size of 385±5.0 nm with PDI of 0.169±0.011. The TEM and microscopy imaging showed that the DiR-SPIO-NDs existed as core-shell spheres, and DiR and SPIO nanoparticles dispersed in the shell or core. The MTT and hemolysis studies demonstrated that the nanodroplets were biocompatible and safe. Moreover, the proposed nanodroplets exhibited significant ultrasound-triggered phase transition property under clinical diagnostic ultrasound irradiation due to the vaporization of PFP inside. Meanwhile, the high stability and R₂ relaxivity of the DiR-SPIO-NDs suggested its applicability in MRI. The in vivo T₂-weighted images of MRI and fluorescence images both showed that the image contrast in liver and spleen of rats and mice model were enhanced after the intravenous injection of DiR-SPIO-NDs. Furthermore, the ultrasound imaging (US) in mice tumor as well as MRI and fluorescence imaging in liver of rats and mice showed that the DiR-SPIO-NDs had long-lasting contrast ability in vivo. These in vitro and in vivo findings suggested that DiR-SPIO-NDs could potentially be a great MRI/US/fluorescence multimodal imaging contrast agent in the diagnosis of liver tissue diseases.     

Phospholipid nanodisc engineering for drug delivery systems

Biocompatible mesoscale nanoparticles (5-100 nm in diameter) are attractive tools for drug delivery. Among them are several types of liposomes and polymer micelles already in clinical trial or use. Generally, biocompatibility of such particles is achieved by coating them with polyethylene glycol (PEG). Without PEG coating, particles are quickly trapped in the reticuloendothelial system when intravenously administered. However, recent studies have revealed several potential problems with PEG coating, including antigenicity and restriction of cellular uptake. This has motivated the development of alternative drug and gene delivery vehicles, including chemically and genetically engineered high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-like nanodiscs or "bicelles". HDL is a naturally occurring mesoscale nanoparticle that normally ferries cholesterol around in the body. Its initial "nascent" form is thought to be a simple 10 nm disc of phospholipids in a bilayer, and can be easily synthesized in vitro by mixing recombinant apoA-I proteins with various phospholipids. In this review, the use of synthetic HDL-like phospholipid nanodiscs as biocompatible drug carriers is summarized, focussing on manufacturing, size-control, drug loading and cell targeting.     

Nanotechnology in respiratory medicine

Like two sides of the same coin, nanotechnology can be both boon and bane for respiratory medicine. Nanomaterials open new ways in diagnostics and treatment of lung diseases. Nanoparticle based drug delivery systems can help against diseases such as lung cancer, tuberculosis, and pulmonary fibrosis. Moreover, nanoparticles can be loaded with DNA and act as vectors for gene therapy in diseases like cystic fibrosis. Even lung diagnostics with computer tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) profits from new nanoparticle based contrast agents. However, the risks of nanotechnology also have to be taken into consideration as engineered nanomaterials resemble natural fine dusts and fibers, which are known to be harmful for the respiratory system in many cases. Recent studies have shown that nanoparticles in the respiratory tract can influence the immune system, can create oxidative stress and even cause genotoxicity. Another important aspect to assess the safety of nanotechnology based products is the absorption of nanoparticles. It was demonstrated that the amount of pulmonary nanoparticle uptake not only depends on physical and chemical nanoparticle characteristics but also on the health status of the organism. The huge diversity in nanotechnology could revolutionize medicine but makes safety assessment a challenging task.     

转铁蛋白导向脂质体核磁造影剂纳米粒子（TfNIR-LipNBD-Magnevist）——一种肿瘤靶向磁共振造影剂

造影剂辅助的核磁共振成像是目前肿瘤诊断的最吁方法之一。但是由于核磁共振成像内在的低灵敏性以及造影剂的非特异性,导致肿瘤早期诊断较为困难。文章将一种新的肿瘤靶向核磁造影剂纳米粒子应用于早期肿瘤的影像诊断。这种新的肿瘤靶向核磁造影剂纳米粒子由配体转铁蛋白（Tf）、纳米水平的正电脂质体（Lip）载体和临床常用的造影剂Magnevist（Tf^NIR-Lip^NBD-Magnevist）三部分构成。另外转铁蛋白和脂质体粒子上,亦标记了荧光物质用于确定转铁蛋白一脂质体一造影剂纳米粒子的靶向性,以及肿瘤的光学影像诊断。在体外实验中,利用激光共聚焦显微镜和光学影像证明了靶向纳米粒子介导的细胞内吞和特异性结合。在裸鼠肿瘤模型中,造影剂纳米粒子Tf^NIR-Lip^NBD-Magnevist经尾静脉注入后,显著增强了肿瘤内信号与周围组织的对比度。由造影剂纳米粒子介导的肿瘤内信号显著强于单独Magnevist辅助的肿瘤内信号。同时,利用光学影像方法,在肿瘤内检测到特异的荧光信号。其结果进一步支持了转铁蛋白一脂质体一造影利（Tf^NIR-Lip^NBD-Magnevist）纳米粒子的靶向性和肿瘤影像诊断的有效性。     

A Novel Nanoparticle Formulation for Sustained Paclitaxel Delivery

Purpose  To develop a novel nanoparticle drug delivery system consisting of chitosan and glyceryl monooleate (GMO) for the delivery of a wide variety of therapeutics including paclitaxel. Methods  Chitosan/GMO nanoparticles were prepared by multiple emulsion (o/w/o) solvent evaporation methods. Particle size and surface charge were determined. The morphological characteristics and cellular adhesion were evaluated with surface or transmission electron microscopy methods. The drug loading, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro release and cellular uptake were determined using HPLC methods. The safety and efficacy were evaluated by MTT cytotoxicity assay in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). Results  These studies provide conceptual proof that chitosan/GMO can form polycationic nano-sized particles (400 to 700 nm). The formulation demonstrates high yields (98 to 100%) and similar entrapment efficiencies. The lyophilized powder can be stored and easily be resuspended in an aqueous matrix. The nanoparticles have a hydrophobic inner-core with a hydrophilic coating that exhibits a significant positive charge and sustained release characteristics. This novel nanoparticle formulation shows evidence of mucoadhesive properties; a fourfold increased cellular uptake and a 1000-fold reduction in the IC₅₀ of PTX. Conclusion  These advantages allow lower doses of PTX to achieve a therapeutic effect, thus presumably minimizing the adverse side effects.     

Endothelial nanoparticle binding kinetics are matrix and size dependent

Nanoparticles are increasingly important in medical research for application to areas such as drug delivery and imaging. Understanding the interactions of nanoparticles with cells in physiologically relevant environments is vital for their acceptance, and cell–particle interactions likely vary based on the design of the particle including its size, shape, and surface chemistry. For this reason, the kinetic interactions of fluorescent nanoparticles of sizes 20, 100, 200, and 500 nm with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were determined by (1) measuring nanoparticles per cell at 37 and 4°C (to inhibit endocytosis) and (2) modeling experimental particle uptake data with equations describing particle attachment, detachment, and internalization. Additionally, the influence of cell substrate compliance on nanoparticle attachment and uptake was investigated. Results show that the number of binding sites per cell decreased with increasing nanoparticle size, while the attachment coefficient increased. By comparing HUVEC grown on either a thin coating of collagen or on top of three‐dimensional collagen hydrogel, nanoparticle attachment and internalization were shown to be influenced significantly by the substrate on which the cells are cultured. This study concludes that both particle size and cell culture substrate compliance appreciably influence the binding of nanoparticles; important factors in translating in vitro studies of nanoparticle interactions to in vivo studies focused on therapeutic or diagnostic applications. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2011;108: 2988–2998. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Stimulatory effect of polyethylene glycol (PEG) on gene expression in mouse liver following hydrodynamics-based transfection

BACKGROUND: Rapid intravenous injection of a large volume of plasmid DNA (pDNA), i.e. a transfection procedure based on hydrodynamics, is known to be an efficient and liver-specific method of in vivo gene delivery. However, the gene expression is transient. METHODS: We investigated the effect of addition of polyethylene glycol (PEG) to a solution of naked pDNA (luciferase) on the expression of the gene in mouse liver following transfection by the hydrodynamics-based technique. In addition, the mechanism leading to the enhancement of the gene expression was studied. RESULTS: The addition of 1% (w/v) PEG2000 to the pDNA solution enhanced the resulting gene expression in the liver. Increasing the PEG2000 concentration to more than 1 and up to 10% (w/v) rather diminished the gene expression level. By contrast, increasing the molecular weight of PEG to over 2000 up to 10 000 did not affect the level of gene expression. Histopathological and serum-chemistry examinations indicated that hydrostatic or osmotic pressure increased tissue and hepatocellular damage in a PEG-concentration-dependent manner, and resulted in a decrease in gene expression. Quantitative evaluation showed that the enhanced gene expression resulted from stabilization of the pDNA introduced into the hepatocytes and an enhancement of the transport of intact pDNA to the nucleus. CONCLUSIONS: For most gene therapy applications and gene function studies, sustained expression of the introduced gene(s) is necessary. This simple method to achieve enhanced gene expression in liver may have a great potential for a wide variety of laboratory studies in molecular and cellular biology as well as possibly for future clinical applications in humans.