Structure and ecology of epiphyte communities of a cloud forest in central Veracruz,Mexico

Abstract. 39 species of vascular epiphytes were found in a 625-m² plot in a cloud forest in Veracruz, Mexico. Epiphyte biomass was estimated for all species in six zones distinguished on each tree > 10 cm in DBH: stem base, lower stem, upper stem, branches > 20 cm, branches from 5 — 20 cm and branches < 5 cm diameter. Branches were additionally separated according to their position in the upper, middle or lower canopy. Total dry matter of green organs was 318 kg/ha. Dominance/diversity curves fitted best to the lognormal model. Principal Coordinate Analysis showed that canopy height and branch thickness are both important factors and also that the stem base was the most distinct zone. Microhabitat preferences and niche overlap of the frequent species proved some degree of resource partitioning within the canopy. Ecophysiological characters possibly responsible for these preferences and implications for conservation are discussed.     

Seedling establishment of Acacia tortilis and Hyphaene compressa in the Turkwel riverine forest, Kenya

This study reports on the spatial and temporal patterns of seedling establishment in the Turkwel riverine forest, Kenya. Seedlings of the dominant tree species Acacia tortilis and Hyphaene compressa were mapped and monitored to assess the underlying causes of seedling recruitment and mortality. The broad‐scale distribution of A. tortilis was not correlated with any environmental variables, while H. compressa seedlings were confined to flood‐exposed sites in the arid downstream section of the floodplain. One year of monitoring showed that seedling recruitment of A. tortilis was evoked by prolonged rainfall, while seedling mortality was caused by desiccation, browsing and trampling. In contrast, seedling recruitment and mortality of H. compressa was largely unaffected by rainfall and livestock, probably due to the high moisture requirements of seeds and the tolerance of seedlings to disturbance. There were no effects of soils, light, or seedling density on the establishment of A. tortilis and H. compressa seedlings. This study demonstrates the importance of parallel mapping and monitoring of riverine seedlings in order to understand patterns and processes of forest regeneration in arid and semi‐arid floodplains.     

Comparing environmental vulnerability in the montane cloud forest of eastern Mexico: A vulnerability index

The montane cloud forest (MCF) is one of the most threatened ecosystems, in spite of its high strategic value for sustainable development, the role it plays in the hydrological cycle maintenance, and as reservoir of endemic biodiversity. For Mexico, this forest is considered the most threatened terrestrial ecosystem at national level because of land-use changes and the effects of global climate change. To compare and assess the environmental vulnerability in the MCF we measured two physiological traits (stomatal conductance and leaf water potential), four climate variables (air temperature, photosynthetically active radiation, vapor pressure deficit, water availability) and the potential geographic distribution of eleven tree species from this forest. We evaluated stomatal conductance responses using the envelope function method (EFM), and after analyzing these responses we developed a vulnerability index that allowed us to compare the environmental vulnerability among species. We proposed the EFM as a useful tool to assess regional environmental vulnerability by comparing species. Our results showed differential species responses to all the studied variables; however, the vulnerability index allowed us to conclude that the most vulnerable species was Liquidambar styraciflua, and the least vulnerable Persea longipes. We also found that temperatures above 34 °C, and vapor pressure deficit above 2.9 kPa with relative humidity below 30% jeopardized the stomatal conductance performance of all species. We also found leaf water potential as the most influential variable over the studied species followed by vapor pressure deficit, showing that even in the MCF water is a determinant factor for species’ development.     

黔中喀斯特次生林优势物种空间分布格局及关联性

以黔中天龙山2 hm²喀斯特次生林为对象,采用成对相关函数g(r)结合完全随机模型(CSR)研究重要值前4位优势树种的空间分布格局及其关联性。结果表明: 样地树种的径级结构呈倒“J”型分布,在优势树种窄叶石栎和圆果化香的影响下,第Ⅴ径级(≥10 cm)的数量较多。窄叶石栎呈现倒“J”型分布,种群更新良好,处于生长发育初级阶段;而圆果化香和云南鼠刺随着径级的增大数量逐渐递增,成年树、大树数量远多于幼树、小树,表明该种群更新不足,处于生长发育的中后期并逐渐衰退。除窄叶石栎外,其余优势树种整体呈现出在较大尺度上聚集分布,聚集程度随着尺度的增大逐渐下降并趋于随机分布,此规律在幼树径级中表现得尤为突出;而受各种因素的影响,各个树种不同径级呈现出不同的空间分布格局。在种间关联上,4个优势树种之间大多呈现负关联或者无关联关系,树种重要值越高与其他优势树种关联程度越低,呈现负关联的2个树种在小尺度上关联程度最低,随着尺度的增大负关联程度逐渐降低并趋向于无显著关联。     

Successional change of forest pattern along topographical gradients in warm-temperate mixed forests in Mt Kiyosumi,central Japan

Forest patterns along topographical gradients were compared between second- and old-growth forested watersheds in a warm-temperate zone of Mt Kiyosumi, central Japan. Three community types were distinguished depending on the topographical habitat type in each watershed, for example, conifer forest was dominated byAbies firma andTsuga sieboldii on ridge sites, evergreen broad-leaved forest was dominated byQuercus acuta, Q. salicina andCastanopsis cuspidata var.sieboldii on slope sites, and deciduous forest was dominated byEuptelea polyandra andCornus controversa in valley sites. Beta diversity and distinctiveness of each topographical community type increased with progression of secondary succession. Conifers and evergreen broad-leaved trees, which were intermingled with each other on ridges and slopes of the second-growth watershed, were in turn restricted to the ridge and slope habitat type, respectively, in the old-growth watershed. The process of this differentiation can be explained by the continuous regeneration of conifers on ridge sites, and its absence on slope sites due to different light conditions caused by progressive canopy closure of evergreen trees on the slope sites toward the old-growth watershed. In the valley type habitat, frequent soil disturbance, such as landslides and soil creep, hinder the continuous growth of late successional evergreen trees, and thus seral or pioneer deciduous trees can persist in the habitat.     

Water inputs across a tropical montane landscape in Veracruz,Mexico: synergistic effects of land cover,rain and fog seasonality,and interannual precipitation variability

Land‐cover change can alter the spatiotemporal distribution of water inputs to mountain ecosystems, an important control on land‐surface and land‐atmosphere hydrologic fluxes. In eastern Mexico, we examined the influence of three widespread land‐cover types, montane cloud forest, coffee agroforestry, and cleared areas, on total and net water inputs to soil. Stand structural characteristics, as well as rain, fog, stemflow, and throughfall (water that falls through the canopy) water fluxes were measured across 11 sites during wet and dry seasons from 2005 to 2008. Land‐cover type had a significant effect on annual and seasonal net throughfall (NTF <0=canopy water retention plus canopy evaporation; NTF >0=fog water deposition). Forest canopies retained and/or lost to evaporation (i.e. NTF<0) five‐ to 11‐fold more water than coffee agroforests. Moreover, stemflow was fourfold higher under coffee shade than forest trees. Precipitation seasonality and phenological patterns determined the magnitude of these land‐cover differences, as well as their implications for the hydrologic cycle. Significant negative relationships were found between NTF and tree leaf area index (R²=0.38, P<0.002), NTF and stand basal area (R²=0.664, P<0.002), and stemflow and epiphyte loading (R²=0.414, P<0.001). These findings indicate that leaf and epiphyte surface area reductions associated with forest conversion decrease canopy water retention/evaporation, thereby increasing throughfall and stemflow inputs to soil. Interannual precipitation variability also altered patterns of water redistribution across this landscape. Storms and hurricanes resulted in little difference in forest‐coffee wet season NTF, while El Niño Southern Oscillation was associated with a twofold increase in dry season rain and fog throughfall water deposition. In montane headwater regions, changes in water delivery to canopies and soils may affect infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration, with implications for provisioning (e.g. water supply) and regulating (e.g. flood mitigation) ecosystem services.     

Drought resistance in early and late secondary successional species from a tropical dry forest: the interplay between xylem resistance to embolism,sapwood water storage and leaf shedding

The mechanisms of drought resistance that allow plants to successfully establish at different stages of secondary succession in tropical dry forests are not well understood. We characterized mechanisms of drought resistance in early and late‐successional species and tested whether risk of drought differs across sites at different successional stages, and whether early and late‐successional species differ in resistance to experimentally imposed soil drought. The microenvironment in early successional sites was warmer and drier than in mature forest. Nevertheless, successional groups did not differ in resistance to soil drought. Late‐successional species resisted drought through two independent mechanisms: high resistance of xylem to embolism, or reliance on high stem water storage capacity. High sapwood water reserves delayed the effects of soil drying by transiently decoupling plant and soil water status. Resistance to soil drought resulted from the interplay between variations in xylem vulnerability to embolism, reliance on sapwood water reserves and leaf area reduction, leading to a tradeoff of avoidance against tolerance of soil drought, along which successional groups were not differentiated. Overall, our data suggest that ranking species' performance under soil drought based solely on xylem resistance to embolism may be misleading, especially for species with high sapwood water storage capacity.     

Germination and Establishment of Tillandsia eizii (Bromeliaceae) in the Canopy of an Oak Forest in Chiapas, Mexico

We assessed the effectiveness of repopulating the inner canopy and middle canopy of oak trees with seeds and seedlings of the epiphytic bromeliad Tillandsia eizii. Canopy germination was 4.7 percent, considerably lower than in vitro (92%). Of the tree-germinated seedlings, only 1.5 percent survived 6 mo. In contrast, 9.3 percent of transplanted laboratory seedlings survived 15 mo. To repopulate trees, we recommend transplanting laboratory-grown seedlings, as large as practically possible, to branches in the middle canopy.     

The role of plant resources in forest succession: changes in radiation, water and nutrient fluxes, and plant productivity over a 300-yr-long chronosequence in NW-Germany

In the past insufficient attention has been paid to quantitative measurements of resource fluxes in ecosystems that undergo successional change. In this study, simultaneous changes in seven plant resources (photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), water, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and potassium) are quantified by a chronosequence approach for a 300-yr-long secondary succession on poor soil from Calluna vulgaris heathland to Fagus sylvatica-Quercus petraea late-successional forest (heathland-to-forest succession).Above-ground net primary production increases sevenfold, and total above-ground phytomass about fortyfold during heathland-to-forest succession. Plant organs that capture resources increase much more slowly (leaf area index: threefold; fine root biomass: 1.3-fold). The increase in productivity is based both on higher absorptivity and conversion efficiency of PAR by the canopies of the successional plants.Accumulation of organic material on the forest floor significantly improves soil water availability. Evapotranspiration losses increase early in succession as the growing vegetation increases in both height and leaf area but tend to decrease again in the late-successional community. Drainage losses are at their minimum at the conifer-dominated pioneer forest stage.Accumulation of available nutrients in the soil is a key process in heathland-to-forest succession that significantly improves plant nutrient availability but leads to only minor changes in carbon/nutrient ratios and humus quality. Litter decomposition rates increase and result in a more rapid nutrient turnover in late successional stages. External nutrient inputs (from the atmosphere and soil weathering) significantly contribute to plant nutrient supply early in succession, whereas the internal cycling of nutrients through litter fall and nutrient mineralisation by far exceeds external inputs at the late stages.Vitousek & Reiners' (1975) ecosystem nutrient loss hypothesis is supported by the heathland-to-forest succession data. Odum's (1969) hypotheses on how nutrient cycles change during the course of succession is, in one part, rejected, in part supported. Tilman's (1988) hypothesis on nutrient limitation early, and light limitation late in primary succession is rejected.     

东灵山暖温带落叶阔叶次生林动态监测样地:物种组成与群落结构

群落结构状态是植被演替进程中的重要体现之一,同时也是下一步演替过程发生的基础.暖温带落叶阔叶次生林是中国暖温带森林植被的主要类型.为了更好地研究其演替动态、生物多样性维持机制,我们参照巴拿马Barro Colorado Island(BCI)50 ha热带雨林样地的技术规范,于2009年11月至2010年9月在北京门头沟区小龙门森林公园的暖温带落叶阔叶次生林内建立了一块20 ha的固定样地(简称DLS),对样地内胸径≥1 cm的所有木本植物进行了鉴定、调查及定位,分析了群落的组成和结构.结果表明,样地内木本植物有58种,隶属于18科33属.独立个体的总数为52,136,包括独立个体分枝的总数为103,284,全部为落叶树种.群落的区系类型以北温带成分居多,同时混有一些亚热带和热带成分,属典型的温带森林类型.群落优势种明显,个体数最多的前5个种的个体数占到总个体数的61%,前20个种占到92%,而其余38个种只占8%.群落成层现象明显,垂直结构由主林层(19个种)、次林层(18个种)和灌木层(21个种)组成.样地所有木本植物个体总径级分布呈倒"J"型,群落更新良好.主林层树种的径级结构近似于双峰或正态分布,而次林层和灌木层树种则表现出倒"J"型或"L"型.几个主要树种的空间分布表现出不同的分布格局,随着径级增大,聚集程度降低.空间分布格局显示主要优势种自身个体在其径级大小的空间分分布上互补,不同径级的个体占据了样地内不同的空间位置.     

深圳南山区天然森林群落多样性及演替现状

对南山区5个主要天然森林群落(铁榄群落、鼠刺 降真香群落、鸭脚木群落、假苹婆群落、水翁 假苹婆群落)的组成结构及物种多样性进行分析,并与相邻的香港地区地带性森林群落(黄桐群落)作比较。结果表明,依照亚热带及南亚热带森林群落演替规律,南山区天然林处于不同的演替发育阶段：铁榄群落处于演替第3阶段;鼠刺 降真香群落处于第4阶段;其它3个群落处于第5阶段,均未达到稳定的顶极群落阶段。随着铁榄群落、鼠刺 降真香群落、鸭脚木群落、假苹婆群落、水翁 假苹婆群落这个演替序列,物种丰富度的变化规律是：先逐渐上升,到达一个峰值,再缓慢下降。Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielous均匀度指数的变化规律与物种丰富度相同,Simpson指数变化曲线与这些指数相反。但这些指数反映的结果是一致的。综合多个指数分析,鸭脚木群落物种多样性最大,即当群落中阳生性树种与中生性树种优势度相差不大时。群落具有最大的物种多样性。多样性比较结果显示,南山森林群落物种多样性大大低于香港黄桐群落。5个群落的Shannon—Wiener指数在2．04～2．953之间,明显低于黄桐群落,其Shannon—Wiener指数为4．74;Simpson指数0．1～0．268,黄桐群落为0．05;Pielous均匀度指数64．2％～74％,黄桐群落为79％。南山森林群落物种多样性水平低下的状况与长期的人类干扰有关,必须尽快采取“封山育林”等相应措施来促进群落的保护和恢复。     

Regeneration niche of three epiphytic species of Gesneriaceae from Chilean rainforests: implications for the evolution of growth habits in Coronanthereae

Ecological and evolutionary studies of the epiphytic growth habit in angiosperms are limited. In this article, we assess the relationship between growth habit and regeneration niche in Coronanthereae (Gesneriaceae) and discuss its implications for the evolution of epiphytism in this lineage. In the temperate rainforest of southern Chile, we quantified the vertical distribution and experimentally examined the regeneration niche of three endemic species of Coronanthereae. One species was a holoepiphyte, which was more frequent in the upper canopy, and two species were secondary hemiepiphytes, which decreased in abundance with tree height. Seed germination of the holoepiphyte was higher on tree bark substrates and under open canopy than on forest soil and in the shade. In contrast, seed germination of both secondary hemiepiphytes did not differ between substrates (bark vs. soil) or light conditions (light vs. shade). Seedling survival percentage of secondary hemiepiphytes was higher on forest soil and under a closed canopy, thus behaving as shade‐tolerant species. In turn, the holoepiphyte behaved as a shade‐intolerant species. The reconstruction of the ancestral growth habits and regeneration niches on the inferred phylogenetic tree of Coronanthereae revealed that the specialized regeneration niche of Sarmienta repens, characterized by requirements of shade intolerance and germination on tree bark, was coupled with the evolution of the holoepiphytic growth habit. We conclude that differentiation in the regeneration niche is a key process in the evolution of epiphytic growth habits in Coronanthereae. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 170 , 79–92.     

千岛湖次生林优势种植物光合生理生态特性

对千岛湖次生林优势种马尾松(Pinus massoniana)、苦槠(Castanopsis sclerophylla)、石栎(Lithocarpus glaber)、青冈(Cyclobalanopsis glauca)在不同季节的光合作用日变化、光响应、CO2响应以及相对叶绿素含量进行了分析,以期了解群落演替的内在机制。结果表明:(1)马尾松的净光合速率(Pn)日变化在4个季节均呈"单峰"曲线;苦槠在8月呈"双峰"曲线,其他3个月份均呈"单峰"曲线;石栎和青冈在5月、8月和11月的Pn日变化均为"双峰"曲线,有明显的光合"午休"现象,2月为"单峰"曲线。(2)马尾松和苦槠的Pn日积累值为8月最高,石栎和青冈为11月最高,且均与其他3个月均差异显著。4种优势种在4个季节的Pn日积累值的平均值大小为马尾松苦槠青冈石栎,差异显著。(3)4个季节中,光饱和点(LSP)、光补偿点(LCP)、最大净光合速率(Amax)、暗呼吸速率(Rd)、最大羧化速率(Vcmax)、最大电子传递速率(Jmax)均以马尾松最高,表观量子效率(AQY)为马尾松最低。青冈在4个季节中具有最低的LSP、Rd和最高的AQY。苦槠和石栎的光合特性介于马尾松和青冈之间。(4)相对叶绿素含量以青冈最高,马尾松最低。总之,马尾松属强阳性树种,苦槠为阳性树种,石栎具有一定的耐荫性,青冈的耐荫性较强。     

次生常绿阔叶林的群落结构与物种组成:基于浙江乌岩岭9 ha森林动态样地

常绿阔叶林是我国亚热带地区的地带性植被, 但由于长期的人为干扰, 目前仅有少量分布且主要以次生常绿阔叶林的形式存在。因此, 了解次生常绿阔叶林的物种共存机制对于保护森林生物多样性非常重要。基于大型动态监测样地对森林的物种组成及群落结构进行研究, 是揭示生物多样性维持机制的重要手段。按照美国史密森研究院热带森林科学研究中心(Center for Tropical Forest Science, CTFS)大型森林动态样地建设标准, 于2011-2012年在浙江省乌岩岭国家级自然保护区内建立了1个9 ha森林动态监测样地。通过对样地内胸径≥ 1 cm木本植物的物种组成(如重要值)、群落结构(如区系组成和径级结构等)以及空间分布的分析发现: (1)样地有木本植物存活个体47科92属200种71,396株, 其中壳斗科、樟科、山茶科、冬青科、杜鹃花科和山矾科等占优势; (2)在区系组成上, 热带成分略多于温带成分; (3)群落径级结构接近倒“J”型, 表明群落更新良好, 其中优势种径级结构呈倒“J”型、偏常态型和波动型等各种形态, 且并未表现出种群衰退的趋势; (4)优势种表现出明显的生境偏好和聚集分布格局, 暗示生境异质性可能是影响亚热带次生常绿阔叶林物种空间分布的重要因素。     

Tree species distribution in canopy gaps and mature forest in an area of cloud forest of the Ibitipoca Range,south-eastern Brazil

The tree community of both canopy gaps and mature forest was surveyed in a 5 ha plot of cloud forest in the Ibitipoca Range, south-eastern Brazil, aiming at: (a) comparing the tree community structure of canopy gaps with that of three strata of the mature forest, and (b) relating the tree community structure of canopy gaps with environmental and biotic variables. All saplings of canopy trees with 1–5 m of height established in 31 canopy gaps found within the plot were identified and measured. Mature forest trees with dbh 3 cm were sampled in four 40×40 quadrats laid on the four soil sites recognised in the local soil catena. All surveyed trees were identified, measured and distributed into three forest strata: understorey (<5 m of height), sub-canopy (5.1–15 m) and canopy (15.1–30 m). The following variables were obtained for each gap: mode of formation, age, soil site, slope grade, size, canopy openness and abundance of bamboos and lianas. A detrended correspondence analysis indicated that the tree community structure of gaps in all soil sites was more similar to that of the mature forest understorey, suggesting that the bank of immatures plays an important role in rebuilding the forest canopy and that gap phases may be important for understorey shade-tolerant species. There was evidence of gap-dependence for establishment for only one canopy tree species. Both canonical correspondence analysis and correlation analysis demonstrated for a number of tree species that the distribution of their saplings in canopy gaps was significantly correlated with two variables: soil site and canopy openness. The future forest structure at each gap is probably highly influenced by both the present structure of the adjacent mature forest and the gap creation event.     

Survey and census of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the rain forest of “Los Tuxtlas,” Veracruz,Mexico

Howler monkey troops were censused at the biological reserve “Los Tuxtlas” in Veracruz, Mexico. The reserve includes 700 ha of rain forest. Twenty howler monkeys were also trapped, measured, marked, and released. Censuses were conducted for a period of 26 months, and they indicated the existence of 17 troops. The mean troop size was 9.12 (SD ± 2.93), and mean troop composition was 3.0 adult males, 4.12 females, 1.56 juveniles, and 1.54 infants. Ecological density was 0.23 howlers/ha or 23.29 howlers/km². The male to female ratio was 1:1.37. No discrete seasonality in births was noted. Howler monkeys in this locality inhabit the northernmost limit of the neotropical rain forest. The population parameters fall within those reported for Alouatta palliata at other sites.