Using the product environmental footprint for supply chain management: lessons learned from a case study on pork

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to test the chain-organization environmental footprint (chain-OEF) approach by applying it to part of a pork production chain in Belgium. The approach is supposed to provide insight into the environmental impact of a specific production chain in an efficient manner by applying pragmatic data collection throughout the chain. This is achieved by allocating the environmental impact of each of the production sites to the product of interest using straightforward allocation rules.

Methods

The cradle-to-gate (up to retail) environmental impact of pork was determined by life cycle assessment (LCA), in line with the product and organisation environmental footprint guidelines (PEF and OEF; European Commission 2013b). Foreground data was gathered at a feed production site, two farmers, a slaughterhouse and a meat processing site. All foreground operations are part of the same pork production chain in Belgium. The chain was completed using background data from Ecoinvent v3.01 (Wernet et al. 2016), Agri-Footprint v1.0 (Blonk 2014), European Life Cycle Database v3.0, LCA Food Database (Nielsen et al. 2003) and OEF Sector Rules Retail (Humbert et al. 2015b). The impact was quantified using the international reference life cycle data system (ILCD) midpoint method for 14 impact categories, but focussing on climate change.

Results and discussion

The total carbon footprint of the cradle-to-gate pork production system equals 0.46 kg CO₂-eq. (100 g pork)^?1. This result is quite similar to that of earlier studies analysing the pork production chain: 0.58 and 0.57 kg CO₂-eq. (100 g pork)^?1 (Bracquené et al. 2011, Agri-Footprint 2014). Most of the carbon footprint was caused by feed production and more specifically, by the feed ingredients and their transport. Grains, soy and palm oil have the largest impact contributions. The farms are responsible for most of the remaining impact. N₂O and CH₄ emissions are the largest cause of greenhouse gas emissions at the farms. Also, in the other 13 considered impact categories, feed production and farming are responsible for more than half of the total impact, mostly followed by meat processing.

Conclusions

Applying the chain-OEF approach in this study has shown that a chain LCA can be performed successfully and pragmatic data collection allows obtaining LCA results relatively fast, especially for small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Whereas data availability was not such an issue, the main bottlenecks identified are data management and the link of LCA to other disciplines such as engineering, policy, etc. which could increase the added value of LCA studies.

     

LCA case study. Part 1: cradle-to-grave environmental footprint analysis of composites and stainless steel I-beams

Purpose

I-beams for outdoor structures are traditionally made from conventional materials such as stainless steel due to its high strength and corrosive resistant properties. Alternatively, the I-beam can also be made from composite materials such as glass-reinforced plastics (GRP), which provide similar properties under a lighter weight and a lower cost condition. Nonetheless, their environmental footprint performance depends largely on activities involved during their life cycle. Therefore, the findings are presented in two parts: Part 1 and 2. This paper is about Part 1, which presents the environmental footprint for the cradle-to-grave of one linear metre I-beam that is made from two materials namely stainless steel (316) and GRP. Part 2, which will be submitted as a separate paper, has specifically analysed their environmental and economic impacts for the different cradle-to-gate scenarios and the potential carbon tax.

Materials and methods

Materials that were used to compare the environmental footprint of an I-beam are GRP and stainless steel (316). Their cradle-to-grave activities included raw material extraction, supplier transportation, manufacturing process, distribution, disposal transportation and process. Input data were based on data provided by a composites company in Australia, the Ecoinvent 2.2 and Australian data 2007 databases. The World ReCiPe midpoint and endpoint methods were used to assess the environmental footprint.

Results and discussion

The environmental footprint results for the cradle-to-grave of the I-beams are presented as a contribution percentage of the single score unit in the total and damage category levels which produced by the endpoint method. The characteristic and normalisation results were also generated for all impact categories by the midpoint method.

Conclusions

Overall, the cradle-to-grave results show that the composite I-beam produces 20 % less environmental footprint than that of the stainless steel I-beam. The human health damage category is affected the most due to the main contribution from the material stage. The cradle-to-gate results are contributed by 90 % from raw material extraction, 7 % from the manufacturing process and 3 % from the supplier transportation. In terms of the characteristic results, the composite I-beam produces less environmental impact in most of the impact categories except for the climate change, photochemical oxidant formation, terrestrial acidification, marine eutrophication, natural land transformation and fossil depletion. Therefore, the influential parameters of these impact categories are investigated further in Part 2 where the environmental footprint and economic impact are estimated for different cradle-to-gate scenarios of the I-beams.     

旅游风景区旅游交通系统碳足迹评估——以南岳衡山为例

随着全国各地旅游业的蓬勃发展,旅游风景区内碳排放总量不断攀升,严重影响了旅游业的可持续发展。选择南岳衡山旅游风景区为典型案例区,运用生命周期评价理论,构建了南岳风景区旅游交通系统碳足迹计算模型。结果表明:①从总量来看,不同类型交通方式的碳足迹情况相差甚远。公路旅游交通对旅游景区的环境威胁最大,碳足迹总量是索道旅游交通的2.6倍,人行道旅游交通的46.1倍;②从阶段构成来看,公路和索道旅游交通系统运营使用阶段碳足迹占整个生命周期的大部分,所占比率分别为79%和96%.而人行道旅游交通系统中建造施工和运营后期阶段能源消耗比较大;③从来源构成来看,在使用期内公路旅游交通的碳足迹比重最大,约占碳足迹总量的71%,其次是索道旅游交通占27%,人行道旅游交通仅占2%。研究结果有利于实现旅游风景区低碳旅游发展目标,为旅游风景区节能减排提供理论支撑。     

城市食物磷足迹研究——以龙岩市为例

运用物质流分析法,以龙岩市为例,分析了1985—2010年城市食物磷代谢的变化,估算了食物磷足迹。研究表明,龙岩市总磷输入和总磷输出都有明显的增长(总磷输入从4110 t增加到12102 t,总磷输出从3855 t增加到11315 t);总磷足迹从6482t增加到20473 t,直接磷足迹的比例从53%下降到42%;而间接磷足迹的增速明显高于直接磷足迹;龙岩市在城市尺度上是重要的磷汇,在流域尺度上则是重要的磷源。磷足迹的研究有助于全面理解和评估城市磷代谢的特征;将磷足迹与磷流动分析结合,对我国磷资源和区域磷素管理调控具有指导意义。     

城市餐饮业食物浪费碳足迹——以北京市为例

食物浪费及其造成的环境影响已成为全球广泛关注的热点。无论从生命周期还是碳足迹的视角来看,食物浪费意味着生产、运输、加工与储存这些被浪费掉的食物过程中所投入的各种资源的浪费以及不必要的温室气体排放。以北京市餐饮食物浪费问题为切入点,在通过问卷调查和称重方法对餐饮食物浪费状况进行调查的基础上,将整个食物生命周期各供应链环节相应的温室气体排放纳入考量,估算了北京市餐饮食物浪费的碳排放量。研究结果表明:北京市餐饮食物浪费总量为39.86×10~4t/a。其中,蔬菜类浪费量最高,约占浪费总量的43.16%,其次为肉类和主食类,分别占食物浪费总量的20.59%和16.66%。北京市餐饮食物浪费所产生的总碳足迹为192.51×10~4—208.52×10~4t CO_2eq。其中,农业生产阶段的碳排放量最大为99.34×10~4t CO2eq,占食物浪费总碳足迹的47.64%。其次是消费阶段的碳足迹77.96×10~4t CO_2eq,占食物浪费总碳足迹的37.39%,再次是餐厨垃圾处理阶段的碳足迹28.54×104tCO2eq,占食物浪费总碳足迹的13.68%。这些不同供应链环节的碳排放比例,为透视食物浪费所带来的环境影响提供了新的认知,也为遏制食物浪费提供了科学的理论依据。     

生态足迹理论在生态市建设规划中的应用——以海口市为例

生态市建设规划是促进区域可持续发展的有效措施,而生态足迹理论作为定量测度发展的可持续状态的一类生物物理方法对于定量描述区域发展现状、判断发展中的基本问题具有重要的借鉴作用。生态足迹分析应用到生态市建设规划中可以（1）分析可持续发展进程,明确城市可持续发展状态;（2）明确城市一定人口的消费对环境产生的后果以及与可持续发展相关的重要资源问题;（3）为合理开展生态市建设规划、减少生态足迹提供决策信息。本研究根据海口生态市建设规划实践剖析了生态足迹理论在明确上述3个方面中的应用。结果表明：海口市2002年生态足迹为生态承载力的5．6倍,处于不可持续状态。出现赤字的土地类型依次为耕地、水域、化石燃料用地和草地,其中耕地赤字为各项需求之首。海口市2002年万元GDP的生态足迹为0．93hm^2,表现为资源利用效率较低,但海口市生态占用率较小,生态环境压力相对较小。根据海口市生态环境现状,减少生态足迹、提高可持续发展能力的规划途径主要为：通过保护土地资源和提高科技发展水平改善耕地和草地赤字的现状;通过构建城市生态交通和构建生态建筑与节能体系来缓解化石燃料用地的压力;通过发展循环经济和转变消费模式来提高资源利用效率;通过控制人口增长来提高人均生态承载力。     

基于能值改进的开放系统生态足迹模型及其应用——以深圳市为例

对生态经济复合系统综合评价是实现区域可持续发展首先要面对的科学问题.针对传统生态足迹模型的系统封闭性和空间互斥性等不合理假设,利用从系统论出发并具有基于流量算法优点的能值分析理论,对传统生态足迹模型加以改进,同时将人类劳务纳入系统评价.改进后的模型仍然从供给与需求角度分析区域消费足迹与承载力,强调区域资源进出口,分析开放系统条件下区域发展状况,并将人类的作用纳入可持续发展评价范畴.以深圳市2006年发展状况为例对改进模型进行实证分析.计算结果显示:研究区域具有48.08ghm2的人均潜在生态承载力;在生物生产账户上存在3.60ghm2的人均生态赤字,需进口来弥补,而在工业产品账户上3.14ghm2的人均盈余,可供出口;具有约4.87ghm2的人均净承载力出口,为其他区域的发展做出了贡献;人力资源是深圳市可持续发展的重要保障,至少提供相当5.20ghm2的人均生态承载力;发展高新技术产业、低能耗的清洁工业,产出高能值转换率的产品,实现区域本地产品在能量系统等级的提升,是提升本地承载力的现实途径.结果表明,改进后模型突破了传统生态足迹模型偏生态的弱可持续性评价局限,成为综合反映区域生态经济发展状况的可持续性评价模型.     

Uncertainties in the carbon footprint of food products: a case study on table potatoes

Background, aim, and scope  

Carbon footprint (CF) has become a hot topic as public awareness of climate change is placing demands on manufacturers to declare the climate impact of their products. Calculating the CF of food products is complex and associated with unavoidable uncertainty due to the inherent variability of natural processes. This study quantifies the uncertainty of a common food product and discusses the results in relation to different types of CF systems for food product labelling.     

基于环境污染账户核算的生态足迹模型优化——以珠江三角洲城市群为例

针对传统的生态足迹分析模型在账户设置中忽略对环境污染核算的缺陷,本文提出了涵盖污染账户的生态足迹模型,将污染物进行合理转化进而纳入核算账户,在生态足迹核算中增加了污染足迹的计算,在生态承载力核算中增加了环境承载力的计算,并通过2005年珠江三角洲城市群的生态足迹对优化的生态足迹模型进行了验证.结果表明,通过优化模型计算得出的2005年珠江三角洲城市群的生态足迹结果与该区的实际发展特征和空间结构具有较高的吻合度.说明优化的模型在内涵上为环境污染在生态足迹模型中进行了较准确的定位,使结果能更全面地反映人类活动对生态环境的影响,在核算的完整性和客观性上均优于传统的生态足迹核算体系.     

Carbon footprint of rice production under biochar amendment – a case study in a Chinese rice cropping system

As a controversial strategy to mitigate global warming, biochar application into soil highlights the need for life cycle assessment before large‐scale practice. This study focused on the effect of biochar on carbon footprint of rice production. A field experiment was performed with three treatments: no residue amendment (Control), 6 t ha^?1 yr^?1 corn straw (CS) amendment, and 2.4 t ha^?1 yr^?1 corn straw‐derived biochar amendment (CBC). Carbon footprint was calculated by considering carbon source processes (pyrolysis energy cost, fertilizer and pesticide input, farmwork, and soil greenhouse gas emissions) and carbon sink processes (soil carbon increment and energy offset from pyrolytic gas). On average over three consecutive rice‐growing cycles from year 2011 to 2013, the CS treatment had a much higher carbon intensity of rice (0.68 kg CO₂‐C equivalent (CO₂‐C_e) kg^?1 grain) than that of Control (0.24 kg CO₂‐C_e kg^?1 grain), resulting from large soil CH₄ emissions. Biochar amendment significantly increased soil carbon pool and showed no significant effect on soil total N₂O and CH₄ emissions relative to Control; however, due to a variation in net electric energy input of biochar production based on different pyrolysis settings, carbon intensity of rice under CBC treatment ranged from 0.04 to 0.44 kg CO₂‐C_e kg^?1 grain. The results indicated that biochar strategy had the potential to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of crop production, but the energy‐efficient pyrolysis technique does matter.     

基于碳足迹的传统农业系统环境影响评价——以青田稻鱼共生系统为例

现代农业在带来粮食高产的同时也产生许多生态环境问题,这促使人们再次把目光转向传统农业系统。一些传统农业系统不仅具有突出的经济、社会和文化价值,还具有多种重要的生态功能,如温室气体减排。然而,已有研究缺乏对传统农业系统整个生命周期的固碳减排能力的测算及其环境影响的评价。为此,基于农户调研数据,运用生命周期评价法对青田稻鱼共生系统的碳足迹进行了测算,并与当地水稻单作系统进行比较。研究发现:(1)青田稻鱼共生系统和水稻单作系统碳足迹分别为6266.7 kgCO₂-eq/hm²和7520.0 kgCO₂-eq/hm²,单位产值碳足迹分别为0.12 kgCO₂-eq/元和0.21 kgCO₂-eq/元。与水稻单作系统相比,稻鱼共生系统排放的温室气体更少,环境影响更小,生态和经济效益更高。(2)农业生产过程中积累的CH₄是碳足迹的最主要来源,农业生产资料投入中的化肥是碳足迹的的第二大来源。农业生产资料投入中的饲料则是稻鱼共生系统碳足迹的另一重要来...     

Testing indicators of epiphytic lichen diversity: a case study in N Italy

The predictability of a standardized and widely used biomonitoring method for estimating total lichen diversity on trunks (LDV-index) was tested. The study was carried out in Veneto (NE Italy), on 34 randomly selected trees in five sites in different landscape contexts. Two sets of biodiversity data were obtained from each tree: (1) the LDV index based on species frequency within a standard sampling grid positioned on a limited part of the trunks only (2) the total number of species found on the trunks. Total species richness on trunks is significantly related with the LDV index, which suggests that the LDV standard methodology can be used also for estimates of lichen diversity. Even a LDV index based on macrolichens, or on large-lobed foliose lichens only, still permits reliable estimates of total diversity on the trunks.     

LCA case study. Part 2: environmental footprint and carbon tax of cradle-to-gate for composite and stainless steel I-beams

Purpose

Part 1 of this research investigated environmental footprint for the cradle-to-grave of a linear metre I-beam made from traditional and alternative materials which are stainless steel (316) and glass reinforced plastics (GRP). Results revealed that GRP generally produced less environmental footprint than stainless steel. The main contribution found in the cradle-to-gate caused by raw materials (90 %) and associated transportation (10 %). Certain impact categories of GRP were either equalled or higher than stainless steel I-beam including the climate change impact category. Therefore, part 2 of this research further investigates the ecological and economic hot spots of the cradle-to-gate of GRP I-beam and alternative supply chain scenarios. The potential carbon tax was also estimated under two different situations.

Methods

GRP and stainless steel (316) are used to assess the environmental footprint and the economic impact of 6,098 m I-beams as a production volume in practice. The World ReCiPe midpoint and endpoint methods generated the life cycle inventory, characteristic and single score results for the environmental footprint. The economic impact estimated based on a simple cost calculation associated with the cradle-to-gate including material, production and transportation costs. The ecological and economic hot spots were identified and formed 12 supply chain scenarios.

Results and discussion

Both identified hot spots came from raw materials that used in large quantities, consumed higher electricity and delivered by road and water transportation over long travel distances. The climate change impact category and the potential carbon tax values are improved under the scenarios that use a supplier from countries that generate electricity from less coal-based energy source and involve less transportation in delivering the raw materials.

Conclusions

Win–win and trade-off scenarios were revealed when comparing both impacts. The former scenario reduces material costs, the travel distances and using lower freight rate transportation that consumes less fuel such as shipping. The latter scenarios are often occurred by either attempting to reduce the environmental footprint from using less transportation but the raw material costs are suffered. Manufacturers may select the scenario based on their production constrains. Cradle-to-grave was discussed and shown the benefits in including steel recycling into the assessment which can equate the potential carbon tax of the stainless steel with some GRP I-beam scenarios. Future work can be enhanced by considering other factors in the practice of manufacturing system such as insurance cost and lead time.     

Uncertainties in the carbon footprint of refined wheat products: a case study on Swedish pasta

Purpose  

Calculating the carbon footprint (CF) of food is becoming increasingly important in climate change communication. To design effective CF labelling systems or reduction measures, it is necessary to understand the accuracy of the calculated CF values. This study quantified the uncertainty in the CF of wheat and of a common refined wheat-based product, pasta, for different resolutions of farm-level in-data to gain an increased understanding of the origins and magnitude of uncertainties in food CFs.     

不同规模餐馆食物浪费及其氮足迹——以北京市为例

餐饮食物浪费的普遍性和严重性已得到了社会各界的关注。通过实证研究的方法对餐饮消费中食物浪费问题进行了研究,并从食物全供应链的视角,对比分析了不同规模餐馆食物浪费的氮足迹及其环境影响。研究表明:北京市餐饮食物浪费人均浪费量为74.39g/人次,其含氮量为1.24g/人次,约占总浪费量的2%。北京市餐饮食物浪费所引起总的氮排放量为16.37 g/人次,其中有1.24g/人次的氮排放来自于食物的直接浪费,其余15.13g/人次氮排放来自于食物生产过程。北京市餐饮食物浪费的氮足迹为0.22g N/g,即每浪费1g的食物,就会有0.22 g的氮排放到环境中。对比不同规模餐馆的食物浪费情况可知,大型餐馆的人均浪费量最高,有99.38g/人次,其氮排放量也相应最大,为22.53g/人次;中型餐馆和小型餐馆的食物浪费人均量及N排放量依次减少,而快餐的最低,仅为北京市整体平均水平的1/3。     

城市能源利用碳足迹分析——以厦门市为例

城市能源利用碳足迹分析综合考虑直接与间接碳排放,对于深度分析碳排放的本质过程、制定科学全面的碳减排计划具有重要意义。以厦门市为研究案例,应用碳足迹的混合分析方法,对厦门市2009年能源利用碳足迹进行了分析,除了包括传统研究中的城市能源终端利用产生的直接碳排放,还计算了跨界交通和城市主要消耗物质的内含能引起的间接碳排放。研究结果表明:(1)城市边界内的工业、交通、商业等部门的能源消耗产生的直接碳排放(即层次1和层次2)只占到总碳足迹的64%,而一直被忽略的跨界交通和城市主要消耗物质的内含能引起的间接碳排放(层次3)占到36%;(2)在直接碳排放中,工业部门的碳排放贡献率最大,占到直接碳排放的55%,其中化工行业带来的碳排放占到工业部门的25%;(3)在间接碳排放中,跨界交通引起的碳排放占间接碳排放的27%,其中长途道路运输贡献率最大,占跨界交通碳排放的38%;主要材料内含能碳排放占间接碳排的73%,其中燃料的内含能碳排放占总内含能的份额最大,达51%。;(4)从人均碳足迹角度比较,厦门市人均碳足迹和丹佛市的人均直接碳排(层次1+层次2)分别为5.74 t CO2e/人、18.9 t CO2e/人,包含3个层次的人均碳足迹分别为9.01 tCO2e/人、25.3 t CO2e/人,其中跨界交通引起的碳排放均占总碳足迹的10%左右,主要材料的内含能引起的碳排放分别占到总碳足迹的26%、15%;通过国内外典型城市不同层次碳足迹比较可见厦门还是相对低碳的,但有个显著的特点是主要消耗物质的内含碳排放比例较高,这在一定程度上说明了发展中国家城市消耗更多的基础材料,进一步证明了传统核算中忽略的第3层次碳排放核算与管理的重要性。     

新疆生态足迹与环境压力的时空分异

提高生态现代化总体水平是改善区域生态环境承载力的核心和关键。利用生态环境质量指数和生态现代化指数(EM I)对我国西部生态环境脆弱区的新疆维吾尔自治区生态足迹和环境压力的变动态势进行了系统分析。结果表明:2004年新疆生态现代化指数在全国排名为27位,仍然为我国生态现代化水平落后的地区之一。1980—2005年,新疆综合现代化水平远低于高收入国家、世界平均水平和中等发达国家。1998年新疆人均生态足迹由25957hm2增加到2007年的40551hm2,人均生态承载力由3.1270hm2减少到2.8266 hm2。区域环境水平呈下降趋势。资源转化率、生态保护指数呈明显上升态势。环境治理指数呈剧烈变动,1996-2003年呈N型变动态势,区域生态脆弱性没有明显逆转。     

基于碳足迹研究的中国地区工业低碳转型——以山东省为例

行业的低碳发展是工业低碳转型的目标,以工业部门为对象,应用脱钩效应和面板模型分析行业能源消费的碳足迹,对深入研究地区工业低碳转型具有重要现实意义。以山东省为例,分析工业能源消费碳足迹的1997年至2012年样本数据,将工业部门分为高耗能行业、其他行业、战略性新兴行业,展开研究,结果表明:(1)自20世纪90年末代开始节能降耗,山东省工业呈现强负"脱钩"、强"脱钩"、扩张负"脱钩"和弱"脱钩"交替发生,表明对工业节能降耗调控波动大,不利于工业部门均衡有序发展;(2)高耗能行业是能耗大户,高耗能行业与工业在绝大部分年份的脱钩状态相同,表明高耗能行业主导工业总体脱钩状态,是节能减排的主要对象;随着节能降耗的深入,相关政策趋紧,碳足迹边际成本不断升高,应关注锁定效应大的火电行业和碳足迹边际成本高的化学工业;(3)其他行业包含行业多,但总体能耗水平不高,随着节能减排的开展和行业持续发展,能耗将增加,必将承担更多的节能减排,需要关注锁定效应强的金属制品业发展,推动碳生产力系数高的食品饮料业发展;(4)战略性新兴行业碳锁定效应最弱、碳足迹边际成本最低和碳生产力系数最高,是国家大力倡导发展的行业;由于基数低,对工业碳排放态势影响极其有限,应大力推动碳锁定效应弱的新一代信息技术产业、碳足迹边际成本低的新材料行业、碳生产力系数高的节能环保业和新材料行业。     

A case study of Chinese bound feet: application of footprint analysis

Foot print patterns of the bound feet of a 90-year-old Chinese female were made to obtain insight into the ergonomic consequences of a Chinese custom that caused significant disabilities for many women throughout history. Pressure patterns were evaluated using the techniques applied to standard thumb print analsyis. A digital summary of the pressure patterns were compared to the patterns obtained from a normal subject. The outcomes indicated that the bound foot produced greater plantar tissue pressures than the non-bound foot. These observations help explain the discomfort, gait abnormalities, and disabilities exhibited by many older women with bound feet living in China today. Although foot-binding is no longer practiced, this study offers an ergonomic perspective on a custom practiced in China for centuries.