Is racism the new sectarianism? Negativity towards immigrants and ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland from 2004 to 2015

Negativity towards ethnic minorities is a serious problem in Northern Ireland. Its history of the Troubles around religious identities makes Northern Ireland a special case in Europe. This paper examines negativity towards Muslims, Eastern Europeans and immigrants in Northern Ireland using data from the Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey and the British Social Attitudes Survey. The results from regressions show that anti-immigrant negativity is no more prevalent in Northern Ireland than elsewhere in the UK. However, levels of negativity towards Muslims and Eastern Europeans are significantly higher than in Great Britain and have increased in recent years, particularly among young adults aged 18–24 years, although older cohorts are more intolerant on average. Our regression analyses found strong positive relationships between anti-immigrant negativity, sectarianism and perceived neighbourhood segregation. Higher education, contacts with minority members and (religiously) mixed schooling are negatively related to negativity towards immigrants.     

Genetic susceptibility to prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is the most frequent malignant tumor among men over 50 years old. Its incidence varies according to countries and ethnic group. Known risk factors are race and positive family history of the disease. Familial aggregation (at least 2 cases in the family) is observed in about 20% of cases and an hereditary form of prostate cancer in 5%. This proportion increases with younger age at diagnosis. Six putative loci are already identified but undoubtedly, others will be found in forthcoming studies. The genetic heterogeneity observed in hereditary prostate cancer reflects variety of origins of the studied families. In some families, aggregation of prostate cancer and other cancers suggests the involvement of common predisposing genes. In other familial and in sporadic cases, the genetic component should be polygenic: prostate cancer wouldn't result to segregation of a major gene mutations transmitted according to a monogenic inheritance, but rather to sharing of alleles at many loci, each contributing to a small increase in cancer risk. Indeed, several genetic polymorphism were associated with an increased risk of developing prostate cancer and could explain the variations of prostate cancer incidence observed between populations.     

Racial disparity in colorectal cancer:Gut microbiome and cancer stem cells

Over the past two decades there has been remarkable progress in cancer diagnosis, treatment and screening. The basic mechanisms leading to pathogenesis of various types of cancers are also understood better and some patients, if diagnosed at a particular stage go on to lead a normal pre-diagnosis life. Despite these achievements, racial disparity in some cancers remains a mystery. The higher incidence, aggressiveness and mortality of breast, prostate and colorectal cancers(CRCs) in AfricanAmericans as compared to Caucasian-Americans are now well documented. The polyp-carcinoma sequence in CRC and easy access to colonic epithelia or colonic epithelial cells through colonoscopy/colonic effluent provides the opportunity to study colonic stem cells early in course of natural history of the disease. With the advent of metagenomic sequencing, uncultivable organisms can now be identified in stool and their numbers correlated with the effects on colonic epithelia. It would be expected that these techniques would revolutionize our understanding of the racial disparity in CRC and pave a way for the same in other cancers as well. Unfortunately, this has not happened. Our understanding of the underlying factors responsible in African-Americans for higher incidence and mortality from colorectal carcinoma remains minimal. In this review, we aim to summarize the available data on role of microbiome and cancer stem cells in racial disparity in CRC. This will provide a platform for further research on this topic.     

Molecular Expression of Some Oncogenes and Predisposing Behaviors Contributing to the Aggressiveness of Prostate Cancer

Background:Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men in Iran. It can be treated in the early stages of the disease; therefore, early diagnosis can be lifesaving. The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular expression of some oncogenes and predisposing behaviors contributing to the aggressiveness of prostate cancer.Methods:In this case-control study, prostate cancer specimens were collected from both patients and healthy volunteers. Several factors such as age, family history, smoking, and stage of the disease, were investigated based on the criteria of this study. Real-time PCR was used to measure the expression of four oncogenes. Statistical analysis of our data was carried out using SPSS software version 22.Results:The X² test showed that there was a difference in the incidence of prostate cancer in different age groups (X²= 9.30; p= 0.026). Although data analysis by the X² test showed that family history had a significant effect on prostate cancer (X²= 14.43; p= 0.001), smoking did not show a significant effect on the incidence of this disorder (X²= 4.67; p= 0.097). The T2N1M0 stage is the most common form of prostate cancer in patients with family history of prostate cancer and the habit of smoking. Also, the expression of KRAS1P, GLB1L2, SChLAP1 and PACSIN3 oncogenes reduced in prostate cancer samples compared to the control group.Conclusion:Overall, functional interpretation of gene expression in the prostate tissue can affect tumor progression. Yet, further practical studies are required to reveal the accurate underlying mechanisms.Key Words: Age, Family History, Oncogenes, Prostate Cancer, Smoking     

Risk for rheumatic disease in relation to ethnicity and admixture

Risk of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is high in west Africans compared with Europeans, and risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is high in Native Americans compared with Europeans. These differences are not accounted for by differences in allele or haplotype frequencies in the human leucocyte antigen (HLA) region or any other loci known to influence risk of rheumatic disease. Where there has been admixture between two or more ethnic groups that differ in risk of disease, studies of the relationship of disease risk to proportionate admixture can help to distinguish between genetic and environmental explanations for ethnic differences in disease risk and to map the genes underlying these differences.     

Incidence of psychotic illness in London: comparison of ethnic groups.

OBJECTIVE--To compare annual incidences of psychosis in people from different ethnic groups as defined in the 1991 census. SETTING--Catchment area of district psychiatric hospital. DESIGN--All people aged 16 to 54 years who made contact with a wide range of community and hospital services between 1 July 1991 and 30 June 1992 were screened for psychotic symptoms. Patients with such symptoms were interviewed face to face to collect information on demography, ethnic group, psychiatric history and symptoms, drug use, and how care had been sought. A key informant, usually a close relative, was also interviewed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Age standardised incidence of schizophrenia and non-affective psychosis according to the ninth edition of the International Classification of Diseases in each ethnic group. RESULTS--Ninety three patients took part, of whom 38 were assigned a certain or very likely diagnosis of schizophrenia (15 in white population, 14 in black, seven in Asian, and two in others). The age standardised annual incidence of schizophrenia was 2.2 (95% confidence interval 1.5 to 2.9) per 10,000 of the population. The incidence ratio for schizophrenia in all ethnic minority groups compared with the white population was 3.6 (1.9 to 7.1); the corresponding figure for non-affective psychosis was 3.7 (2.2 to 6.2). CONCLUSIONS--Raised incidences of schizophrenia were not specific to the African Caribbeans, which suggests that the current focus on schizophrenia in this population is misleading. Members of all ethnic minority groups were more likely to develop a psychosis but not necessarily schizophrenia. The personal and social pressures of belonging to any ethnic minority group in Britain are important determinants in the excess of psychotic disorders found.     

The STR polymorphism (AAAAT)n within the intron 1 of the tumor protein 53 (TP53) locus in 17 populations of different ethnic groups of Africa, America, Asia and Europe

The STR (AAAAT)n within intron 1 of the TP53 locus was screened in 17 populations from 3 main ethnic groups: Europeans, Asiatics, and Africans, and from the hybrid population of Costa Rica (1968 samples). Three alleles, 126/7 (bp/copies of the repeat), 131/8 and 136/9 were the most prevalent in all populations. Other alleles rarely reached frequencies of 10% or higher. Observed heterozygosities ranged between 0.351 and 0.829. Patterns of diversity fit well with both the geographic origin of the samples and the history of the populations screened. A statistical test suggests that single-step mutational events have been the main mechanism producing new alleles at this locus. Fixation indexes (R(ST)) for this marker showed an effect of population subdivision on divergence only within the Asiatic group; they were insensitive at the level of major ethnic groups as well as within Africans and within Europeans.     

Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: a probable contributor to group differences in health.

Racial and ethnic variations in serum testosterone levels were investigated among a large sample of male Vietnam era veterans. Based on geometric means, significant average differences were found between 3,654 non-Hispanic white and 525 black individuals. The geometric mean for testosterone levels among 200 Hispanic individuals was similar to that of non-Hispanic white individuals. Regarding two other racial/ethnic groups (Asian/Pacific Islanders and Native Americans), no significant differences were found, due perhaps to small sample sizes. Results were interpreted as having considerable potential for explaining some of the race differences in the incidences of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and prostate cancer.     

Markers for mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium in African American and Hispanic populations

Population linkage disequilibrium occurs as a consequence of mutation, selection, genetic drift, and population substructure produced by admixture of genetically distinct ethnic populations. African American and Hispanic ethnic groups have a history of significant gene flow among parent groups, which can be of value in affecting genome scans for disease-gene discovery in the case-control and transmission/disequilibrium test designs. Disease-gene discovery using mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium (MALD) requires a map of polymorphic markers that differentiate between the founding populations, along with differences in disease-gene allele frequencies. We describe markers appropriate for MALD mapping by assessing allele frequencies of 744 short tandem repeats (STRs) in African Americans, Hispanics, European Americans, and Asians, by choosing STR markers that have large differences in composite delta, log-likelihood ratios, and/or I*(2) for MALD. Additional markers can be added to this MALD map by utilization of the rapidly growing single-nucleotide-polymorphism databases and the literature, to achieve a 3-10-cM scanning scale. The map will be useful for studies of diseases, including prostate and breast cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and end-stage renal disease, that have large differences in incidence between the founding populations of either Hispanics or African Americans.     

Regional trends in prostate cancer incidence,treatment with curative intent and mortality in Norway 1980–2007

Objectives: To compare the trends in prostate cancer incidence, treatment with curative intent and mortality across regions and counties in Norway, and to consider changes in incidence (an indicator for early diagnosis) and treatment with curative intent as explanatory factors for the decreasing prostate cancer mortality rates. Patients and methods: Prostate cancer incidence and mortality data (1980–2007) alongside treatment data (1987–2005) were obtained from the national, population-based Cancer Registry of Norway. Joinpoint regression models were fitted to age-adjusted incidence, treatment and mortality rates to identify linear changes in the trends. Results: Both age-adjusted incidence rates and rates of curative treatment of prostate cancer increased significantly in all five regions of Norway since the early 1990s. There was a strong positive correlation between increasing incidence and increasing use of curative treatment. The frequency of curative treatment in Western Norway was almost threefold that in the Northern and Central regions around year 2000. Subsequently, the regional trends converged and only minor differences in prostate cancer incidence and use of curative treatment were observed by 2005. The declines in mortality were observed earliest in the regions with the highest incidence and the most frequent use of curative treatment, while the largest decreases in mortality were found in counties where the largest increases in curative treatment were observed. Conclusions: The elucidation of the prostate cancer mortality trends is hindered by an inability to tease out the potential effects of early treatment from the more general impact of improved and more active treatment. However, it is likely that both sets of intervention have contributed to the decline in prostate cancer mortality in Norway since 1996.     

The A's, G's, C's, and T's of health disparities

In order to eliminate health disparities in the United States, more efforts are needed to address the breadth of social issues directly contributing to the healthy divide observed across racial and ethnic groups. Socioeconomic status, education, and the environment are intimately linked to health outcomes. However, with the tremendous advances in technology and increased investigation into human genetic variation, genomics is poised to play a valuable role in bolstering efforts to find new treatments and preventions for chronic conditions and diseases that disparately affect certain ethnic groups. Promising studies focused on understanding the genetic underpinnings of diseases such as prostate cancer or beta-blocker treatments for heart failure are illustrative of the positive contribution that genomics can have on improving minority health.     

Estimates of African, European and Native American ancestry in Afro-Caribbean men on the island of Tobago

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The Tobago Afro-Caribbean population is a valuable resource for studying the genetics of diseases that show significant differences in prevalence between populations of African descent and populations of other ancestries. Empirical confirmation of low European and Native American admixture may help in clarifying the ethnic variation in risk for such diseases. We hypothesize that the degree of European and Native American admixture in the Tobago population is low. METHODS: Admixture was estimated in a random sample of 220 men, from a population-based prostate cancer screening survey of 3,082 Tobago males, aged 40 to 79 years. We used a set of six autosomal markers with large allele frequency differences between the major ethnic populations involved in the admixture process, Europeans, Native Americans and West Africans. RESULTS: The ancestral proportions of Tobago population are estimated as 94.0+/-1.2% African, 4.6+/-3.4% European and 1.4+/-3.6% Native American. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that Tobago Afro-Caribbean men are predominantly of West African ancestry, with minimal European and Native American admixture. The Tobago population, thus, may carry a higher burden of high-risk alleles of African origin for certain diseases than the more admixed African-American population. Conversely, this population may benefit from a higher prevalence of protective alleles of African origin.     

Racial/ethnic disparities in human DNA methylation

The racial/ethnic disparities in DNA methylation patterns indicate that molecular markers may play a role in determining the individual susceptibility to diseases in different ethnic groups. Racial disparities in DNA methylation patterns have been identified in prostate cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer and are related to racial differences in cancer prognosis and survival.     

Lifestyle factors and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing in UK Biobank: Implications for epidemiological research

BackgroundThe central role of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing in the diagnosis of prostate cancer leads to the possibility that observational studies that report associations between risk factors and prostate cancer could be affected by detection bias. This study aims to investigate whether reported risk factors for prostate cancer are associated with PSA testing in a large middle-aged population-based cohort in the UK.MethodsThe cross-sectional association between a wide range of sociodemographic, lifestyle, dietary and health characteristics with PSA testing was examined in 212,039 men aged 40–69 years in UK Biobank.ResultsA total of 62,022 (29%) men reported they had ever had a PSA test. A wide range of factors was associated with a higher likelihood of PSA testing including age, height, education level, family history of prostate cancer, black ethnic origin, not being in paid/self-employment, living with a wife or partner, having had a vasectomy, being diagnosed with cancer or hypertension and having a high dietary intake of cereal, cooked and salad/raw vegetables, fresh fruit and tea. Conversely, socioeconomic deprivation, Asian ethnic origin, current smoking, low alcohol intake, high body-mass index, high coffee consumption and being diagnosed with diabetes, heart disease or stroke were associated with a lower likelihood of PSA testing.ConclusionsA variety of sociodemographic, lifestyle and health-related characteristics are associated with PSA testing, suggesting that observed associations of some of these traits with risk for prostate cancer in epidemiological studies may be, at least partially, due to detection bias.     

An epidemiological reappraisal of the familial aggregation of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis

Studies on familial aggregation of cancer may suggest an overall contribution of inherited genes or a shared environment in the development of malignant disease. We performed a meta-analysis on familial clustering of prostate cancer. Out of 74 studies reporting data on familial aggregation of prostate cancer in unselected populations retrieved by a Pubmed search and browsing references, 33 independent studies meeting the inclusion criteria were used in the analysis performed with the random effects model. The pooled rate ratio (RR) for first-degree family history, i.e. affected father or brother, is 2.48 (95% confidence interval: 2.25–2.74). The incidence rate for men who have a brother who got prostate cancer increases 3.14 times (CI:2.37–4.15), and for those with affected father 2.35 times (CI:2.02–2.72). The pooled estimate of RR for two or more affected first-degree family members relative to no history in father and in brother is 4.39 (CI:2.61–7.39). First-degree family history appears to increase the incidence rate of prostate cancer more in men under 65 (RR:2.87, CI:2.21–3.74), than in men aged 65 and older (RR:1.92, CI:1.49–2.47), p for interaction = 0.002. The attributable fraction among those having an affected first-degree relative equals to 59.7% (CI:55.6–63.5%) for men at all ages, 65.2% (CI:57.7–71.4%) for men younger than 65 and 47.9% (CI:37.1–56.8%) for men aged 65 or older. For those with a family history in 2 or more first-degree family members 77.2% (CI:65.4–85.0%) of prostate cancer incidence can be attributed to the familial clustering. Our combined estimates show strong familial clustering and a significant effect-modification by age meaning that familial aggregation was associated with earlier disease onset (before age 65).     

Ethnic differences and predictors of colonoscopy,prostate-specific antigen,and mammography screening participation in the multiethnic cohort

PurposeGiven the relation between screening and improved cancer outcomes and the persistence of ethnic disparities in cancer mortality, we explored ethnic differences in colonoscopy, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and mammography screening in the Multiethnic Cohort Study.MethodsLogistic regression was applied to examine the influence of ethnicity as well as demographics, lifestyle factors, comorbidities, family history of cancer, and previous screening history on self-reported screening participation collected in 1999–2002.ResultsThe analysis included 140,398 participants who identified as white, African American, Native Hawaiian, Japanese American, US born-Latino, or Mexican born-Latino. The screening prevalences overall were mammography: 88% of women, PSA: 45% of men, and colonoscopy: 35% of men and women. All minority groups reported 10–40% lower screening utilization than whites, but Mexican-born Latinos and Native Hawaiian were lowest. Men were nearly twice as likely to have a colonoscopy (OR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.89–1.99) as women. A personal screening history, presence of comorbidities, and family history of cancer predicted higher screening utilization across modalities, but to different degrees across ethnic groups.ConclusionsThis study confirms previously reported sex differences in colorectal cancer screening and ethnic disparities in screening participation. The findings suggest it may be useful to include personal screening history and family history of cancer into counseling patients about screening participation.     

Cancer incidence in ethnic German migrants from the Former Soviet Union in comparison to the host population

AimTo investigate cancer incidence patterns among ethnic German migrants (Aussiedler) from the Former Soviet Union, a large migrant group in Germany, in comparison to autochthonous Saarland population over a 20 year observation period.MethodsData were obtained from a cohort of Aussiedler residing in the federal state of Saarland (n = 18,619). Cancer incidence and vital status were ascertained through record linkage with the Saarland Cancer Registry and local population registries.ResultsDuring the follow up period from 1990 to 2009 we observed 638 incident diagnoses of malignant neoplasms (except non-melanoma skin cancer). The overall standardized incidence ratio (SIR) was 0.98 (95% confidence interval 0.92, 1.04). However, site-specific SIRs revealed great variation. Stomach cancer incidence was significantly higher among Aussiedler. Lung cancer was elevated for males, but lower among females. Additionally, diagnoses for colorectal cancer among males were significantly lower. Age-standardized rates (ASRs) over time show not all cancer rates of Aussiedler attenuate as expected to Saarland rates. For example, lung and prostate cancer incidence rates show increasing disparity from Saarland rates and female breast cancer incidence develops in parallel. Furthermore, ASR for overall cancer incidence of Aussiedler shows a yearly decrease (p = 0.06) whereas Saarland rates remain stable.DiscussionAussiedler incidence rates reflect incidence pattern observed in their countries of origin.     

Risk of testicular cancer after vasectomy: cohort study of over 73,000 men.

OBJECTIVE--To confirm or refute reports that vasectomy may increase the risk of cancers of the testis and prostate. DESIGN--Computerised record linkage study of cohort of men with vasectomy and comparison of cancer rates with those in the whole Danish population; manual check of all records of patients with testicular and prostate cancer diagnosed within the first year of follow up. SETTING--Denmark 1977-89. SUBJECTS--Cohort of 73,917 men identified in hospital discharge and pathology registers as having had a vasectomy for any reason during 1977-89. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Observed incidences of testicular, prostate, and other cancers up to the end of 1989. RESULTS--The overall pattern of cancer incidence in the study cohort was similar to that expected nationally. No increased incidence in testicular cancer was observed (70 cases; standardised morbidity ratio 1.01 (95% confidence interval 0.79 to 1.28)). The incidence during the first year of follow up was also close to that expected (nine cases; standardised morbidity ratio 0.80 (0.36 to 1.51)). The incidence of prostate cancer was not increased (165 cases; standardised morbidity ratio 0.98 (0.84 to 1.14)). CONCLUSIONS--The incidence of testicular cancer in men with vasectomy is no higher than in other men. Vasectomy does not cause testicular cancer and does not accelerate the growth or diagnosis of pre-existing testicular neoplasms. Data concerning a causal relation between vasectomy and prostate cancer were inconclusive.