Toxic Blue-green Algae Water Blooms Found in some Lakes in the German Democratic Republic

From 1977 to 1979 plankton samples were taken from 6 lakes in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) during water blooms and examined for their toxicity to homothermal animals. Microcystis aeruginosa, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Anabaena spiroides, and Oscillatoria redekei were dominant in the samples. With the exception of Oscillatoria redekei the algae tested had toxic effects on mice after intraperitoneal injection. The rate of survival of the test animals was particularly low when the algae were disintegrated by ultrasound or freeze-drying prior to injection, this indicating the endogenic character of the toxins. Water blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa taken from Lake Pehlitzsee (Eberswalde District) showed the highest toxicity with an LD₃₀ as high as 45 and 43.7 mg/kg, respectively. Injection of the lyophilized cells of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae brought about the same symptoms in the test animals as in the case of Microcystis, but the LD₃₀ was 200 mg/kg.     

东湖蓝藻水华毒性的研究 Ⅱ.季节变化及微囊藻的毒性

1984年至1986年间武汉东湖(包括湖边池塘)的水华有7种,即铜绿微囊藻、大型铜绿微囊藻、边缘微囊藻、水华鱼腥藻、卷曲鱼腥藻、美丽颤藻和束丝藻。经生物测定,除束丝藻未测、卷曲鱼腥藻和美丽颤藻未测出毒性外,其余4种皆为有毒水华。东湖的水华随着季节变化而有不同类型的更迭,其出现格局为:卷曲鱼腥藻、微囊藻、颤藻、微囊藻。微囊藻水华的毒性在不同季节也有较大差异,毒性最低在8—9月份,最高在12月份(LD_(50)=24mg/kg鼠重),随着温度的降低而提高。讨论了某些环境参数与微囊藻水华形成及其毒性变化的关系。此外,还用脑内注射和腹腔注射方法,研究了微囊藻毒素的毒性表现。     

Toxicity and isolation of the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena from the southern Baltic Sea in 1986

Three water bloom samples were collected in August 1986 from the southern Baltic Sea. Acute toxicity of the samples was determined by mouse bioassay and the toxins were further studied by HPLC. The bloom samples contained equal amounts of cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and were hepatotoxic. Two hepatotoxic Nodularia spumigena strains were isolated from the samples. The isolates produce a toxic peak indistinguishable from the bloom material in the HPLC analysis. The toxicity of the fractions was verified by mouse bioassay. Thus the toxicity of the bloom samples was in all likelihood caused by Nodularia spumigena.     

The toxigenic marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense as the probable cause of mortality of caged salmon in Nova Scotia

The toxins associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) are potent neurotoxins produced by natural populations of the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense. In early June 2000, a massive bloom (>7×10⁵ cells l⁻¹) of this dinoflagellate coincided with an unusually high mortality of farmed salmon in sea cages in southeastern Nova Scotia. Conditions in the water column in the harbour were characterised by the establishment of a sharp pycnocline after salinity stratification due to abundant freshwater runoff. In situ fluorescence revealed a high sub-surface (2–4 m depth) chlorophyll peak related to the plankton bloom. The intense bloom was virtually monospecific and toxicity was clearly related to the concentration of Alexandrium cells in plankton size fractions. Cultured clonal isolates of A. tamarense from the aquaculture sites were very toxic on a per cell basis and yielded a diversity of PSP toxin profiles, some of which were similar to those from plankton concentrates from the natural bloom population. The toxin profile of plankton concentrates from the 21–56 μm size fraction was complex, dominated by the N-sulfocarbamoyl derivative C2, with levels of other PSP toxins GTX4, NEO, GTX5 (=B1), GTX3, GTX1, STX, C1, and GTX2, in decreasing order of relative abundance. Although no PSP toxin was found systemically in the fish tissues (liver, digestive tract) from this salmon kill event, the detection of Alexandrium cells and low levels of PSP toxins in salmon gills provide evidence that the enhanced mortalities were caused by direct exposure to toxic Alexandrium cells and/or to soluble toxins released during the bloom.     

A survey of toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Ladoga and adjacent water bodies

Twentyfive cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Ladoga and adjacent water bodies were studied in the summer of 1990–1992. Toxicity of the water bloom material for mice was detected in 9 cases. The maximal tolerable doses (MTD) of the material extracted from biomass varied within 3–30 mg kg^–1 mouse body weight; 50% lethal doses (LD₅₀) were within 45–125 mg kg^–1. Toxic water blooms were registered in Karelian lakes and in the Neva Bay, Gulf of Finland. Cyanobacterial samples collected on the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga proved to be non-toxic. The species identified in toxic bloom material included Anabaena circinalis, A. flos-aquae, A. lemmermannii, Anabaena sp., Aphanizomenonflos-aquae, Gloeotrichia echinulata, G. pisum, Microcystis aeruginosa and Oscillatoria sp. These data suggest that toxic forms of cyanobacteria are widespread in Karelian lakes belonging to the drainage basin of Lake Ladoga.     

IDENTIFICATION OF CYLINDROSPERMOPSIN IN APHANIZOMENON OVALISPORUM (CYANOPHYCEAE) ISOLATED FROM LAKE KINNERET,ISRAEL1

Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti) was identified and isolated from Lake Kinneret upon its first appearance as a dominant bloom in late 1994. This cyanobacterial species, not previously known to be toxic, was evaluated by a commonly used mouse bioassay and was demonstrated to induce toxic symptoms that were distinguishable from the typical symptoms of the neurotoxins previously reported in Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralfs. Mice died 5–24 h after crude extracts were injected intraperitoneally, and the LD₅₀ value was estimated as 465 mg dry wt biomass · kg^?1 mouse. A toxicity-guided fractionation of the active extract indicated that the potent substance is polar an nature. The structure of the active compound was determined by its mass spectrometry and NMR data. The compound was found to be the sulfate-guanidinium zwitterion, cylindrospermopsin, previously isolated from the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) and recently also reported in Umezakia natans (Watanabe). This is the first time that Aphanizomenon ovalisporum has been reported to contain a toxic compound.     

First report of microcystins from a Brazilian isolate of the cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosa

This is the first report on microcystins, cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins, from Brazilian water supplies. A colony isolate (NPJB-1) of the colonial cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosa from Lagoa das Garças, São Paulo, was cultured under non-axenic conditions. Exponential phase cells were harvested, concentrated and lyophilized for mouse bioassays and toxin extraction. The LD₁₀₀ of lyophilized cell suspensions was approximately 31 mg kg^–1 (dry cell weight/animal weight). Isolation, purification and characterization of the toxins were carried out by reversed phase HPLC, HPLC amino acid analysis and fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry. Strain NPJB-1 produces two different hepatotoxic heptapeptide microcystins. The main one was microcystin-LR, the most commonly reported microcystin from cyanobacteria. The other was microcystin-LF, the phenylalanine variant of microcystin-LR. This is the first published report for microcystin-LF.     

A toxic substance produced by Nocardia otitidiscaviarum isolated from cutaneous nocardiosis

During our studies on toxic substances from clinically isolated Nocarida, a new isolate identified as Nocardia otitidiscaviarum from cutaneous nocardiosis was found to produce a toxic substance called HS-6 that had strong in vitro as well as in vivo toxicity. The mouse intraperitoneal LD₅₀ value was 1.25 mg/kg and the ED₅₀ value for L1210 cultured cells was 0.3 ng/ml. The structure of HS-6 was determined and found to belong to the 16-membered macrocyclic group with a molecular formula of C₄₃H₆₈O₁₂. HS-6 also showed activity against pathogenic fungi such as Cryptococcus neoformans.     

Primary poisoning risk for encapsulated sodium nitrite,a new tool for pest control

ABSTRACT

Acute toxicity of sodium nitrite (NaNO₂) was assessed in chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and domestic mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) by oral gavage and in free-feeding trials with chickens, domestic mallard ducks, pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica), budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulates) and wētā (Family: Rhaphidophoridae). Free-feeding trials involved the presentation of toxic paste and pellet baits containing encapsulated NaNO₂ developed for the control of common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) and feral pigs (Sus scrofa). The oral gavage LD₅₀ value for NaNO₂ in solution was approximately 68.50?mg/kg (95% CI 55.00–80.00?mg/kg) for both chickens and ducks. In feeding trials, six out of 12 chickens consumed toxic paste bait and four of these birds consumed a lethal dose. When chickens consumed toxic paste bait, the LD₅₀ value was approximately 254.6?mg/kg (95% CI 249.1–260.2?mg/kg). Of the other three species of birds presented with toxic baits only one duck consumed a lethal dose of paste bait. There was no evidence of wētā feeding on toxic baits.     

A New Polypeptide Toxin from the Nematocyst Venom of an Okinawan Sea Anemone Phyllodiscus semoni (Japanese name “unbachi-isoginchaku”)

The venomous sea anemone Phyllodiscus semoni causes cases of severe stinging. We isolated Phyllodiscus semoni toxin 20A (PsTX-20A), a hemolytic and lethal polypeptide (20 kDa), from the nematocyst venom of this species for the first time. Furthermore, we sequenced the cDNA encoding PsTX-20A. The deduced amino acid sequence of PsTX-20A showed that this toxin was a new member of the actinoporin family, which consists of several cytolytic polypeptides originating from sea anemones. PsTX-20A showed lethal toxicity to the shrimp Palaemon paucidens when administered via intraperitoneal injection (LD₅₀, 50 μg/kg) and hemolytic activity toward 0.8% sheep red blood cells (ED₅₀, 80 ng/ml).     

Toxic blooms of cyanobacteria in the Patos Lagoon Estuary,southern Brazil

The Patos Lagoon is the largest lagoonal system in South America. Its waters are formed by a huge drainage basin (201,600 km²) situated in the most industrialized areas of the Southern state of Rio Grande do Sul. On its margins more than 3 million inhabitants live in several cities and towns. The lagoon waters are used for leisure, drinking, industry, fisheries, agriculture and navigation. A monitoring and sampling program was developed from February 1994 to January 1996 with emphasis on the estuarine area, aiming to evaluate the occurrence of algal blooms. In the last 15 years, several cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) blooms of theMicrocystis aeruginosa have been registered in the lagoon estuary. HighM. aeruginosa biomass (50 to 9,000 g chla l^–1) was observed in the whole region in late summer and autumn 1994, and early summer 1995. The LD50 of toxic bloom samples tested in mice varied from 22 to 250 mg dry weight kg body weight^–1 while levels of toxicity (LC50) in the brine shrimp varied from 0.47 to 2.44 mg ml^–1. Toxicity varied in different blooms, in the distances along the scum and with time, within the same bloom. The hepatotoxin microcystin-LR was identified in almost all samples.     

Occurrence of the hepatotoxic cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea and structure of the toxin

Water blooms formed by potentially toxic species of cyanobacteria are a common phenomenon in the Baltic Sea in late summer. Twenty-five cyanobacterial bloom samples were collected from open and coastal waters of the Baltic Sea during 1985 to 1987, and their toxicity was determined by mouse bioassay. All of 5 bloom samples from the southern Baltic Sea, 6 of 6 from the open northern Baltic Sea (Gulf of Finland), and 7 of 14 Finnish coastal samples were found to contain hepatotoxic cyanobacteria. Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae occurred together in high amounts in blooms from the open-sea areas. In addition, coastal samples contained the species Anabaena lemmermannii, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Oscillatoria agardhii. Eighteen hepatotoxic N. spumigena cultures were isolated from water bloom and open-sea water samples. High-pressure liquid chromatographic analysis of both hepatotoxic bloom samples and Nodularia strains showed a single toxic fraction. The toxin concentrations of the blooms were less than or equal to 2.4 mg/g of freeze-dried material, and those of laboratory-grown cultures were 2.5 to 8.0 mg/g of freeze-dried cells. A single toxin was isolated from three N. spumigena-containing bloom samples and three N. spumigena laboratory isolates. Amino acid analysis and low- and high-resolution fast-atom bombardment mass spectroscopy indicated that the toxin from all of the sources was a cyclic pentapeptide (molecular weight, 824) containing glutamic acid, beta-methylaspartic acid, arginine, N-methyldehydrobutyrine, and 3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyl-4,6-decadienoic acid.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Occurrence of the hepatotoxic cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea and structure of the toxin.

Water blooms formed by potentially toxic species of cyanobacteria are a common phenomenon in the Baltic Sea in late summer. Twenty-five cyanobacterial bloom samples were collected from open and coastal waters of the Baltic Sea during 1985 to 1987, and their toxicity was determined by mouse bioassay. All of 5 bloom samples from the southern Baltic Sea, 6 of 6 from the open northern Baltic Sea (Gulf of Finland), and 7 of 14 Finnish coastal samples were found to contain hepatotoxic cyanobacteria. Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae occurred together in high amounts in blooms from the open-sea areas. In addition, coastal samples contained the species Anabaena lemmermannii, Microcystis aeruginosa, and Oscillatoria agardhii. Eighteen hepatotoxic N. spumigena cultures were isolated from water bloom and open-sea water samples. High-pressure liquid chromatographic analysis of both hepatotoxic bloom samples and Nodularia strains showed a single toxic fraction. The toxin concentrations of the blooms were less than or equal to 2.4 mg/g of freeze-dried material, and those of laboratory-grown cultures were 2.5 to 8.0 mg/g of freeze-dried cells. A single toxin was isolated from three N. spumigena-containing bloom samples and three N. spumigena laboratory isolates. Amino acid analysis and low- and high-resolution fast-atom bombardment mass spectroscopy indicated that the toxin from all of the sources was a cyclic pentapeptide (molecular weight, 824) containing glutamic acid, beta-methylaspartic acid, arginine, N-methyldehydrobutyrine, and 3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyl-4,6-decadienoic acid.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Occurrence and toxicity of an Anabaena bloom in a tropical reservoir (Southeast Brazil)

Potentially toxic cyanobacterial blooms are becoming common in the Brazilian reservoirs in all regions of the country. During October 2004, a dense bloom of cyanobacteria occurred in the Monjolinho Reservoir (São Carlos, São Paulo State, Brazil) and a significant amount of cyanobacterial material accumulated on the water surface. Phytoplankton analysis showed that the main species in this bloom were Anabaena circinalis and Anabaena spiroides. Cladoceran (Ceriodaphnia dubia and Ceriodaphnia silvestrii) and mouse bioassays were performed to detect toxic products in extracts of the natural samples collected at the three different dates during in short period. To prepare the extracts, freeze-dried cells were dispersed in distilled water and subjected to repeated freeze/thaw cycles and sonication and centrifuging processes. Crude extracts were toxic both to cladocerans (LC₅₀ 94–406 mg freeze-dried cells L⁻¹) and mice (indicative LD₅₀ 297–445 mg freeze-dried cells kg⁻¹) and the toxicity of the bloom increased for cladocerans during the occurrence of the bloom. Toxin analysis by ELISA revealed that microcystin (MC) was found in the water of the reservoir (concentrations ranging from 28 to 45 μg L⁻¹). In addition, microcystin was also found in freeze-dried cyanobacteria cells with concentrations ranging from 138 to 223 μg g⁻¹. On the other hand, neurotoxins (saxitoxin and gonyautoxin) were not detected in any of the natural samples by HPLC. Signs of toxicity in mice did not indicate whether the bloom samples were predominantly hepatotoxic or neurotoxic. It is known that natural Anabaena blooms can contain other toxic compounds besides microcystins and neurotoxins such as lipopolysaccharides or other toxins not identified or known. Methods of detecting cyanotoxins used in this study were insufficient to clarify the toxicological features of Anabaena bloom and indicated that other methods should be investigated.     

Efficacy of various synthetic pyrethroid-impregnated encasement materials against house dust mite under laboratory conditions

The acaricidal activity of synthetic pyrethroid and benzyl benzoate against Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus was examined in the laboratory, using a specially designed test set up. On the basis of median lethal dose (LD₅₀) values, the compound found to be most toxic to D. pteronyssinus was benzyl benzoate (LD₅₀ = 50 mg/m²), followed by permethrin (LD₅₀ = 76.7 mg/m²), deltamethrin (LD₅₀ = 146.7 mg/m²), esbioallenthrin (LD₅₀ = 186.6 mg/m²) and lamdacyhalothrin (LD₅₀ = 756.6 mg/m²). Very low toxicity was observed with bifenthrin (LD₅₀ = 5157.8 mg/m²). A laboratory control trial was also carried out to compare the acaricidal activity (residual effect) of four pyrethroids impregnated on woven and non-woven encasement materials against house dust mites during a 4-month period. Of the pyrethroids used in this study, esbioallenthrin demonstrated the highest acaricidal activity, and of the pyrethroid impregnated materials, the non-woven encasement material was more effective than the woven encasement material.     

Geographic differences in paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profiles among Japanese populations of Alexandrium tamarense and A. catenella (Dinophyceae)

To reconsider whether toxin profile could be used as a marker for populations from different geographical areas, clonal isolates of the toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium tamarense (Lebour) Balech and Alexandrium catenella (Whedon et Kofoid) Balech from Ofunato Bay (Iwate Prefecture), Atsumi Bay (Aichi Prefecture), Tanabe Bay (Wakayama Prefecture), Harima‐Nada (Kagawa Prefecture), Uranouchi Bay (Kochi Prefecture), Hiroshima Bay (Hiroshima Prefecture) and Yamakawa Bay (Kagoshima Prefecture), which were identified on the basis of morphotaxonomy, immunological and molecular biological techniques, were subjected to analysis of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by high performance liquid chromatography‐fluorometric method. All the isolates except A. tamarense OF152 from Ofunato Bay contained mainly N‐sulfocarbamoyl toxins (C1 +2) with various amounts of derivatives, and a typical north‐to‐south trend of decreasing toxicity was observed. In both A. tamarense and A. catenella, toxin profiles were rather constant within a geographical area and divergent among different geographical areas. The toxin profiles of A. tamarense from Harima‐Nada were well conserved among different bloom years. Toxin profile showed that isolates of A. tamarense from Ofunato Bay, A. tamarense from Harima‐Nada isolated in 1988 and A. catenella from Uranouchi Bay were heterogeneous. However, only two or three groups of isolates with different toxin profiles were observed in a geographical region, suggesting that several representative isolates express the genotype in a given region. These observations confirmed that toxin composition could be used as a marker to discriminate different geographical populations of these species.     

Toxic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in Finnish fresh and coastal waters

A survey of the occurrence of toxic blooms of cyanobacteria in Finnish fresh and coastal waters was made during 1985 and 1986. Toxicity of the freeze-dried water bloom samples was tested by mouse-bioassay (i.p.). Forty-four per cent (83/188) of the bloom samples were found to be lethally toxic. Hepatotoxic blooms (54) were almost twice as common as neurotoxic ones (29). Anabaena was the most frequently found genus in toxic and non-toxic blooms and it was present in all neurotoxic samples. Statistical associations were found between hepatotoxicity and incidence of Microcystis aeruginosa, M. viridis, M. wesenbergii, Anabaena flos-aquae and Anabaena spiroides. Neurotoxicity was statistically associated with Anabaena lemmermannii, Anabaena flos-aquae and Gomphosphaeria naegeliana. Isolation of strains of cyanobacteria confirmed the occurrence of hepatotoxic and neurotoxic strains of Anabaena, as well as hepatotoxic strains of Microcystis and Oscillatoria species.Toxic blooms caused cattle poisonings at three different lakes during the study period. Toxic blooms also occurred in drinking water sources. Our study shows that toxic cyanobacteria are more common in Finnish lakes than would be expected on the basis of animal poisonings. The results of this study show the existence of toxic cyanobacteria in Finnish water supplies and the need for their continued study as agents of water based disease.     

Insecticidal and feeding deterrent activities of essential oils in the cabbage looper,Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Ten essential oils were tested against the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni larvae for contact, residual and fumigant toxicities and feeding deterrent effects. Against third instar T. ni, Syzygium aromaticum (LD₅₀ = 47.8 μg/larva), Thymus vulgaris (LD₅₀ = 52.0 μg/larva) (the two positive controls) and Cinnamomum glanduliferum (LD₅₀ = 76.0 μg/larva) were the most toxic via topical application. Litsea pungens (LD₅₀ = 87.1 μg/larva), Ilex purpurea (LD₅₀ = 94.0 μg/larva), Cinnamomum cassia (LD₅₀ = 101.5 μg/larva) and Litsea cubeba (LD₅₀ = 112.4 μg/larva) oils were equitoxic. Thymus vulgaris (LC₅₀ = 4.8 mg/ml) and S. aromaticum (LC₅₀ = 6.0 mg/ml) oils were the most toxic in residual bioassays. Cymbopogon citratus (LC₅₀ = 7.7 mg/ml) and C. cassia (LC₅₀ = 8.5 mg/ml) oils were equitoxic followed by Cymbopogon nardus (LC₅₀ = 10.1 mg/ml) in this bioassay. The remaining five oils showed little or no residual effects. In a fumigation bioassay, L. cubeba (LC₅₀ = 16.5 μl/l) and I. purpurea (LC₅₀ = 22.2 μl/l) oils were the most toxic. Cinnamomum glanduliferum (LC₅₀ = 29.7 μl/l) and Sabina vulgaris (LC₅₀ = 31.2 μl/l) oils were equitoxic. Interestingly, S. aromaticum did not exhibit any fumigant toxicity. Cymbopogon citratus, C. nardus and C. cassia strongly deterred feeding by third instar T. ni (DC₅₀s = 26.9, 33.8 and 39.6 μg/cm², respectively) in a leaf disc choice bioassay. The different responses of T. ni larvae to the oils in different bioassays suggest that these essential oils exhibit different modes of action. Based on their comparable efficacy with essential oils already used as active ingredients in many commercial insecticides (i.e. clove oil and thyme oil), some of these essential oils may have potential as botanical insecticides against T. ni.     

Behavioural differences underlie toxicity and predation variation in blooms of Prymnesium parvum

Much of the evolutionary ecology of toxic algal blooms (TABs) remains unclear, including the role of algal toxins in the adaptive ‘strategies’ of TAB-forming species. Most eukaryotic TABs are caused by mixotrophs that augment autotrophy with organic nutrient sources, including competing algae (intraguild predation). We leverage the standing diversity of TABs formed by the toxic, invasive mixotroph Prymnesium parvum to identify cell-level behaviours involved in toxin-assisted predation using direct observations as well as comparisons between genetically distinct low- and high-toxicity isolates. Our results suggest that P. parvum toxins are primarily delivered at close range and promote subsequent prey capture/consumption. Surprisingly, we find opposite chemotactic preferences for organic (prey-derived) and inorganic nutrients between differentially toxic isolates, respectively, suggesting behavioural integration of toxicity and phagotrophy. Variation in toxicity may, therefore, reflect broader phenotypic integration of key traits that ultimately contribute to the remarkable flexibility, diversity, and success of invasive populations.     

Are crustaceans linked to the ciguatera food chain?

Synopsis Adult brine shrimp, Artemia spp., were used as an experimental organism to elucidate the role that crustacea may play in the transference of ciguatera toxins. Some ciguatera-implicated dinoflagellates were highly toxic to brine shrimp that had consumed them. Four clones of Gambierdiscus toxicus were fed in four trials at rates ranging from 2 to 480 cells per adult brine shrimp; the 24 h LD₅₀ for the four clones were 2.8, 33.4, 41.1, and 104.5 cells per brine shrimp. Dinoflagellates Prorocentrum concavum and P. lima were also fed to adult brine shrimp, but minimal mortalities occurred at cell concentrations ranging up to 1000 cells per test animal. Tilapine cichlid (Oreochromis niloticus ×O. mossambicus) young fed brine shrimp containing G. toxicus cells displayed behavioral abnormalities ranging from spiral swimming to loss of equilibrium. The present data suggest that toxins accumulated by dinoflagellate-consuming crustaceans could produce toxicity in zooplanktivorous fish species, or to detritivores in cases where dinoflagellate consumption resulted in crustacean mortalities. Field studies of the ciguatera food chain should be expanded to include examination of crustacean diets to more fully define their role in toxin transfer.