Contribution of the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flag leaf to grain yield in response to plant growth regulators

In West-Europe, intensive cereal management uses plant growth regulators (PGRs) especially for wheat. A green-house experiment compared the effects of two PGRs on flag leaf characteristics and yield of winter wheat. Chlormequat chloride + choline chloride (CCC) and chlormequat chloride + choline chloride + imazaquin (CCC+I) were applied to winter wheat at growth stage 5 (Feekes Large scale). CCC and CCC+I significantly increased flag leaf surface area at anthesis. Both treatments also enhanced chlorophyll content of the main stem flag leaf. The grain filling period was extended with PGR application by 2 days. CCC and CCC+I significantly increased net CO₂ assimilation rates during the flag leaf life. No effects of PGR spraying were observed on the pattern of ¹⁴C labelled assimilate distribution. Increased grain yield was due to the increase in average grain weight. The results indicate that PGR treatments increased flag leaf contribution to grain filling. The addition of imazaquin (I) to chlormequat (CCC) improved the effects of CCC.     

Interactions between fungicide, plant growth regulator, nitrogen fertiliser applications, foliar disease and yield of winter barley

Leaf size and foliar disease in winter barley increased with increasing total amounts of nitrogen applied to the crop: flag leaf areas increased at an average of 10% per 35 kg N ha^-1 Nitrogen top dressing applied in mid-March (G.S. 31) resulted in larger leaves, more foliar disease, more straw, delayed ear emergence, fewer grains ear^-1 and less grain yield than nitrogen applied in mid-April (G.S. 31). Application of chlormequat at G.S. 30 gave a variable response, but overall it increased fertile stems m-² and crop yield and decreased crop height but had no significant effect on straw yield. Fungicide treatments suppressed foliar disease and improved yield. Yield responses were greater when plant growth regulator and mid-March nitrogen had been applied at sites where more disease prevailed than with April-applied nitrogen. In one of the field experiments, on cv. Sonja, delaying the main nitrogen application until April, without fungicide treatment, gave a similar yield to that provided by nitrogen in March with two or three fungicide sprays.     

Effect of triacontanol and chlormequat on growth,plant hormones and artemisinin yield in Artemisia annua L.

Artemisinin and herbage yield of Artemisia annua plants were determined after application of triacontanol (tria.) and chlormequat (2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride). Tria. at 1.0 and 1.5 mgl^–1 produced a statistically significant positive effect on artemisinin level as well as on plant height, leaf and herbage yield. Chlormequat at 1000 and 1500 mgl^–1 also increased artemisinin level, decreased the plant height at higher concentrations and increased the leaf and herbage yield at lower concentrations. Tria. application enhanced GA-like activity, but ABA levels decreased, while chlormequat increased ABA but reduced GA-like substances. The effect of Tria. on artemisinin yield seems to be mediated through its effect on plant growth.CIMAP Publication.     

黑龙港流域夏玉米产量提升限制因素

从产量构成因素及物质生产着手分析了黑龙港流域夏玉米产量进一步提高的限制因子.分析结果显示:穗数、穗粒数和千粒重均与产量显著相关,说明该地区夏玉米仍有继续增产的潜力;但在再高产过程中,单纯依靠穗数增加,产量增产幅度较小,应稳定在一定适宜的密度下,注重单位面积穗粒数和粒重的提高,但在穗数确定的情况下,穗粒数相对稳定,增加粒重成为再高产重要因素.因此,采取措施增强灌浆速率和延长灌浆时间是关键,即增强或稳定叶片在花后的有效光合能力.结果表明,增加叶片数量对产量贡献很小,而改善叶片质量、提高叶片功能,进而增加花后同化物合成至关重要.因此,茎秆和叶片的质量是再高产实现的关键技术突破点.同时,提高茎秆的花前物质转运比例也有助于提高于粒重,促进产量提升.在生产实践中,进一步挖掘产量必须搞清楚地上和地下两方面的关系,但目前对“根系-土壤”复合体的结构和功能研究相对较少.不合理耕作方式造成了土壤耕层太浅,严重影响了玉米根系生长发育,使生育后期吸收功能减弱,不利于产量形成.加之,吐丝前后阴雨寡照,造成穗粒数形成决定期的“源”不足,同时也限制了灌浆速率,提前播期,躲避灾害天气或推迟收获时期,延长灌浆时间等逆境栽培措施就显得尤为重要.     

Integrated use of plant residues,phosphorus and beneficial microbes improve hybrid maize productivity in semiarid climates

Phosphorus unavailability and lack of organic matter in calcareous soils under semiarid climates are the major reasons for low crop productivity. A field experiment was conducted at The Agronomy Research Farm of The University of Agriculture Peshawar (semiarid climate), during summer 2015. The objective of the research was to investigate the effect of plant residues, organic and inorganic phosphorus management on improving yield and yield components of hybrid maize (CS-200) with (+) and without (?) phosphate solubilizing bacteria. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with split plot arrangement, using three replications. A combination of plant residues and phosphorus sources were used as mainplot factor, and phosphate solubilizing bacteria were used as a subplot factor. The results revealed that plant residues, phosphorus sources and phosphate solubilizing bacteria significantly affected all parameters under study except number of plants at harvest. Application of legume residues (Faba bean) increased ear length (22.9 cm), grains row^?1 (46) and ear^?1 (419), 1000 grains weight (365 g), grain yield (6175 kg ha^?1) and shelling percentage (83) as compared to paper mulberry and garlic residues. Phosphorus application at the higher rate of 120 kg ha^?1 from inorganic source (single super phosphate) was superior in terms of higher ear length (24.4 cm), number of grains row^?1 (48) and ear^?1 (455), 1000 grains weight (380 g), grain yield (6558 kg ha^?1), harvest index (42.7%) and shelling percentage (83%) than the lower rate of phosphorus (60 kg P ha^?1). Inoculation of maize seeds with beneficial microbes (phosphate solubilizing bacteria) significantly increased ear length (22.9 cm), number of grains row^?1 (45) and ear^?1 (413), 1000 grains weight (364 g), grain yield (6237 kg ha^?1), harvest index (41.8%) and shelling percentage (82) than without seed inoculation. On the basis of our results from this study, we concluded that application of faba bean residues, 120 kg P ha^?1 as single super phosphate along with seed inoculation with phosphate solubilizing bacteria could improve yield and yield components of hybrid maize under semiarid climates.     

Nitrogen redistribution to sorghum grains as affected by plant competition

An experiment was conducted to study nitrogen absorption and translocation in grain sorghum plants during their reproductive growth. Sorghum was grown in four row spacings: 50 and 70 cm in single rows, 80 and 120cm in double rows 20 cm apart. Plant populations were 71000, 142000 and 213000 plants/ha. After flowering, samples were taken at 12 day intervals, and the plants were divided into grains and stover, where N was analyzed. There was an increase in N concentration in lower plant populations and in wider row spacings. However, total nitrogen accumulation (in kg/ha) increased as the number of plants was increased. In the vegetative parts of the plants there were higher N concentrations in lower populations showing that there was a higher N absorption and a lower translocation to the grains. When grain sorghum was grown in 50 cm rows, there was a high N accumulation, a high N translocation to the grains and the highest yield. This row spacing led to the highest N use efficiency.     

Boron deficiency in maize

Boron (B) deficiency depresses wheat, barley and triticale yield through male sterility. On the basis of field responses to B fertilization, maize (Zea mays L.) is affected by B deficiency in five continents. In a series of sand culture trials with maize subject to B0 (nil added B) and B20 (20???M added B) treatments, we described how B deficiency depressed maize grain yield while showing an imperceptible effect on vegetative dry weight. With manual application of pollen to the silk of each plant, B0 plants produced 0.4 grain ear^?1 compared with 410 grains ear^?1 in B20 plants. Symptoms of B deficiency was observed only in B0 plants, which exhibited symptoms of narrow white to transparent lengthwise streaks on leaves, multiple but small and abnormal ears with very short silk, small tassels with some branches emerging dead, and small, shrivelled anthers devoid of pollen. Tassels, silk and pollen of B0 plants contained only 3?C4?mg B kg^?1 DW compared with twice or more B in these reproductive tissues in B20 plants. A cross-fertilization experiment showed that, although the tassels and pollen were more affected, the silk was more sensitive to B deficiency. Pollen from B20 plants applied to B0 silk produced almost no grains, while pollen from B0 on B20 silk increased the number of grains to 37% of the 452 grains plant^?1 produced from B20 pollen on B20 silk. Therefore, the silk of the first ear may be targeted for precise diagnosis of B status at maize reproduction, for timely correction by foliar B application, and even for B-efficient genotype selection.     

Modification of seedling growth of triticale and barley by seed-applied chlormequat

Seeds of triticale and barley were soaked in a range of dilutions of chlormequat. Germination was monitored and the growth of seedlings assessed for up to five weeks. Some concentrations of chlormequat produced seedlings with significantly more leaves on the main stem, more primary tillers, a greater leaf lamina area and a higher shoot dry weight. It is argued that these modifications could lead to an increased yield potential.     

Grain yield and quality of wheat as affected by chlormequat (2-chloroethyl-trimethyl ammonium chloride)

Three field experiments studying the effect of chlormequat (CCC) on the grain yield of spring wheat and the quality of the grain for baking purposes were made. In the first, CCC applied as a spray during the stage of rapid internode elongation proved more successful than application as a mixture with superphosphate drilled with the seed at sowing. Both methods prevented lodging and the depression of yield which occurred in the control plots. In the other two experiments the sole method of CCC application was by spraying.
In all three experiments CCC-treated plots had more ears per unit area and grains per ear than control plots; the one exception being at the lowest plant density derived from a seeding rate of 24 kg/ha. CCC helped prevent weather damage to the grain and as a result baking performance of the flour from treated plots was superior to that from the untreated plots.     

Effect of sowing date on the optimum plant density of winter wheat

Pressure on financial margins in UK wheat production is driving a review of all inputs, and seed represents one of the largest financial inputs in wheat production. The potential savings through exploiting the crop's ability to compensate for reduced population are, therefore, attractive. Field experiments were carried out at ADAS Rosemaund (Herefordshire, UK) in 1996/97, 1997/98 and 1998/99 to investigate the effect of sowing date on dry matter growth and yield responses of winter wheat to reduced plant population. There were three target sowing dates (late‐Septembr, mid‐October and mid‐November), six seed rates (20, 40, 80, 160, 320 and 640 seeds m^?2) and four varieties (Cadenza, Haven, Soissons and Spark). Grain yield was significantly affected by plant population with a mean reduction from 9.2 to 5.5 t ha^?1 as plant number was reduced from 336 to 13 m^?2. In addition, there was a significant interaction between plant density and sowing date. There was, however, no interaction between variety and plant population in terms of yield, except when lodging affected high plant populations of lodging susceptible varieties. The experiments demonstrated scope for reducing plant populations below the current target of 250–300 plants m^?2; however, the degree of reduction was dependent on sowing date. Over the three years, the average economic optimum plant density was 62 plants m^?2 for late‐September, 93 plants m^?2 for mid‐October, and 139 plants m^?2 for mid‐November sowings. Compensation for reduced population was due to increased shoot number per plant, increased grain number per ear and to a lesser extent increased grain size. Higher economic optimum plant densities at later sowing dates were due to reduced tiller production and hence ear number per plant. The other compensatory mechanisms were unaffected by sowing date.     

Interactions Among Number of Spikelets, Number of Grains and Grain Weight in the Spikes of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

In a field experiment, comprising four spring wheat cultivars,the frequency and final weight of the grains developing fromeach individual floret were determined in intact spikes andin spikes of which up to nine spikelets had been removed. Theextent of damage caused by the cutting procedure was estimated. Characteristic distributions of the frequencies and weightsof the individual grains were found for each cultivar. Removalof spikelets resulted, in most cases, in a small increase inthe number of grains and in a considerable increase in the weightof the grains of the remaining spikelets. These increases compensatedonly partially, and differently in the different cultivars,for the loss of the removed spikelets. Defoliation at the timeof earing caused a subsequent reduction in grain yield of intactspikes but no reduction in the yield of spikes from which ninespikelets had been removed. The removal of the upper floretsin each spikelet resulted in a certain increase in the weightof the two basal grains. It is concluded that an increase in the number of spikeletsper spike may reduce grain weight but will nevertheless contributeto yield. The number of grains per spikelet is cultivar dependentbut not causally associated with grain weight. Grain set indistal florets is expected to add rather small grains to thespike's yield. Under conditions of limited supplies it may causea reduction in the weight of the basal grains. Any increasein grain weight is anticipated to contribute to grain yieldand is not liable to affect spikelets per spike or grains perspikelet. Wheat cultivars, Triticum aestivum, growth of inflorescence, grain yield, spikelet number     

Intergenotypic competition and shoot production in wheat plants

In field experiments, the competition among plants of two distinct wheat genotypes in binary mixtures, and among three genotypes being grown in adjacent rows was investigated. The competition greatly affected the over-ground dry weight, weight of stem and grain per plant. This effect was undercompensatory, the depression in poor competitor was higher than the enhancement of strong competitor for all these characteristics. From final components of grain yield per plant, the number of fertile stems and number of grains per ear were more affected than weight per grain. More expressively than weight of grain on the main-stem ear, the weight of grain per average secondary ear-bearing stem was affected by competition in binary mixture. The enhancement in standard height—a strongly competitive genotype— reached in binary mixture about 10% for this last characteristic in comparison with the value from the pure stand. Some morphological characteristics of plants being in relation with competition for grain yield per plant are discussed in these experiments.     

Effect of abscisic acid on the transport of assimilates in barley

The effect of abscisic acid (ABA) on assimilate transport in barley was investigated in two parallel experiments. First, the effect upon [¹⁴C]sucrose transport from the flag leaf to the ear of a single ABA application made at different stages of growth of the fruits was investigated; the effect was measured 24 h after treatment. Second, the effect of a single application of ABA made at the same stages of growth as above on grain weight of the mature plant was investigated. In both types of experiments ABA was applied once to the ear of different plants as an aqueous solution (10^-3–10^-5 M), one to five weeks after anthesis. [¹⁴C] sucrose was applied by means of agar blocks. Parallel to these experiments, the endogenous content of ABA was investigated in the developing grains. When ears were treated with ABA two or four weeks after anthesis, an increase of up to 70% in the ¹⁴C-transport from the flag leaf to the ear was observed within a 24-h period after treatment (short duration experiments). At these growth stages the endogenous concentrations of ABA were low. In sharp contrast, ABA, especially in a concentration of 10^-3 M, decreased ¹⁴C-import from the flag leaf when applied three weeks after anthesis. At this stage the endogenous ABA content had reached its maximum. Long duration experiments with a single application of ABA to the car two weeks after anthesis resulted in a marked increase of weight per thousand kernels. ABA applications made earlier or later than two weeks after anthesis either reduced the grain weight or had no effect. It is concluded that ABA is involved in the regulation of assimilate transport from the leaves to the grains, possibly by influencing the unloading of sieve tubes in the ears. Promotion or inhibition of assimilate import by exogenously applied ABA may depend on the developmental stage of the grains and on the endogenous ABA level.Abbreviations ABA abscisic acid - TKW weight per thousand kernels     

Effects of variation in temperature and light intensity at different times on growth and yield of spring wheat

Spring wheat grown in pots outdoors was transferred to growth rooms for various periods to study the effect of increasing the temperature from 14-4 to 20-3 ^oC (Expt 1) or from day/night values of 15-0/15-2 to 20-0/15-2 ^oC (Expt 2) and of increasing the amount of visible radiation in a 16 h day from 424 to 792 J cm^-2 (Expt 1) or 374 to 740 J cm^-2 (Expt 2). There were no interactions between temperature and radiation. In Expt 1 neither the increase in temperature nor extra radiation, applied for 14 days immediately after the appearance of double ridges on the stem apex, or 14 days later, increased grain yield at maturity. Warmth early, but not late, increased dry weight, leaf area and the number of floret primordia immediately after treatment, but these effects had disappeared by anthesis, 30 days later. Dry weight but not leaf area was increased by extra radiation but the effects had disappeared 2 wk after treatment. An increase in temperature imposed for 16 days starting 5 or 21 days after anthesis (Expt 2) increased dry weight of the ear and decreased that of the rest of the plant immediately after treatment, and decreased leaf area at all times. When plants from the two temperatures were put together in the same conditions, ear growth of plants that had been in the warm was slower than that of plants from the cold treatment, so that the difference in ear weight observed after 16 days of treatment reversed and grain yield was decreased by warmth applied in either period; the component of yield decreased by warmth was grain size. Additional radiation in either post-anthesis period increased dry weight of all parts of the plant and had negligible effects on leaf area. Final grain yield was increased by c. 15% because the individual grains were larger. Early treatment also increased grain number slightly. The effects of treatment during the two post-anthesis periods were similar in size, and additive.     

Physiological Factors Limiting Grain Size in Wheat

The effects on grain size of changing the supply of assimilates,by thinning before anthesis or by shading the plants or by halvingthe ears either early or late in grain growth, were studiedin two glasshouse experiments with Kleiber spring wheat (Triticumaestivum L.), in 1976 and 1977. Late treatments had no effect,presumably because little grain growth occurred thereafter.Thinning the plants before anthesis increased, and shading theplants soon after anthesis decreased grain size. Halving theears soon after anthesis increased the size of the remaininggrains, but grain weight per ear decreased. The effect on grainsize of halving the ear tended to be smaller under conditionsmore favourable for photosynthesis, except when the plants werethinned before anthesis. Shading decreased the total amountof nitrogen per culm and the proportion of total nitrogen recoveredin the ear. Halving increased the retention of nitrogen in thestem of unshaded shoots and had no effect on nitrogen distributionwithin shaded shoots. In 1977 halving the ear increased the rate of dry matter accumulationin the grain throughout the grain filling period, but in 1976the increase in dry weight was faster in the grains of halvedears only during early grain growth. Later the grains in halvedand intact ears increased in dry weight at the same rate, eventhough the supply of photosynthate and the capacity of the grains(as measured by volume) were greater in the halved ears. Theseresults are discussed in relation to the influence on finalgrain weight of assimilate supply and the storage capacity ofthe grain.     

Photosynthetic characteristics and enzymatic antioxidant capacity of flag leaf and the grain yield in two cultivars of Triticum aestivum (L.) exposed to warmer growth conditions

Using late sowing practice, the reproductive growth (anthesis and kernel filling) phase of two wheat cultivars, HD 1553 and HD 2307 was exposed to warmer growth conditions, and the effect on grain yield was examined. The grain weight declined in late-sown plants of both cultivars, but the number of grains per spike decreased drastically in HD 1553 plants. In this cultivar exposure to warmer temperature during reproductive phase led to 67% fewer grains per spike. Examination of photosynthetic and enzymatic antioxidant capacity in flag leaves of late-sown plants revealed a marked reduction in chlorophyll and carotenoid pigmentation in addition to a decline in the activity of H2O2 metabolising enzymes in HD 1553 cultivar. The photo-oxidative pigment loss due to warmer growth conditions in late-shown HD 1553 plants could lead to a reduction in flag leaf photosynthesis and contribute to poor grain yield.     

Regulation of Grain Weight by Supply of Assimilates and Starch Granule Development in Three Winter Wheat Varieties

On removing the top half of the ear (halving) on several datesafter anthesis, dry weight per grain increased in three winterwheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties, in two pot experiments;the increase was greater with early than with late halving.The variety Splendeur had a lower dry weight and water percentagein grains than either Hobbit or Maris Huntsman. The ratio ofthe green area integrated over the post-anthesis period to thenumber of grains per ear (green area per grain) was highestin Splendeur and lowest in Hobbit in the first experiment; inthe second, Splendeur gave a lower ratio than the other twovarieties, which showed similar values. The green area per grainwas greater the earlier the ear was halved. The number of A-typestarch granules per endosperm, but not the volume per A granule(modal volume) and the modal volume of B starch granules, butnot their number, increased to a greater extent with early thanwith late halving. In Splendeur the grains had fewer A starchgranules, although these were of greater modal volume than inHobbit and Maris Huntsman and a number of B starch granulessimilar to the other two varieties, but of smaller modal volume.Maris Huntsman had more A granules than Hobbit, but with smallermodal volume. Dry weight per grain increased linearly with thenumber of A starch granules per endosperm, which in turn increasedasymptotically with green area per grain. The regressions forthe three varieties differed significantly. The influence ofthe supply of assimilates and the capacity for starch granuleformation in the regulation of grain weight is discussed. Key words: Grain weight, starch granules, assimilate supply, variety, wheat     

Effects of crop thinning and reduced grain numbers per ear on grain size in two winter wheat varieties given different amounts of nitrogen

To study the importance for final grain size in wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) of assimilate supply and the storage capacity of the grain, two field experiments were done. In 1976 nitrogen was applied in the range from none to 180 kg ha^-1, part of the crop was thinned, and the top halves of some ears of the short variety Hobbit and of the tall variety Maris Huntsman were removed soon after anthesis. In 1977 ears of Maris Huntsman were halved 5 days after anthesis or at 30 days after anthesis when grain volume was maximum. Thinning the crop from 360 to 180 ear-bearing shoots m^-2 30 days before anthesis increased the number of grains per ear, except in the absence of nitrogen fertiliser, but did not increase grain size, grain dry weight per ear or total dry weight per culm. Removing the upper half of ears of Hobbit 5 days after anthesis increased dry weight per grain, but when this treatment was applied to Maris Huntsman either 5 days after anthesis in 1976 and 1977, or when grain volume was maximal in 1977, the grains failed to increase in dry weight. Non-grain dry weight of both varieties was increased by halving the ear. In both varieties the maximum volume of grains in halved ears was larger than in intact ears. Grain dry weight increased relatively less than volume after halving the ear of Hobbit, and the decrease in volume up to maturity was greater in halved than intact ears of both varieties. The larger grain volume in halved ears of Maris Huntsman in 1977 was associated with more endosperm cells.     

Phosphorus requirements of the wheat plant in various stages of its life cycle

Summary In pot experiments root growth and P uptake were found to precede shoot growth. The high rate of P uptake in the early stages of the life cycle is not an expression of luxury consumption but reflects a high P requirement in plants. Plants cultivated in nutrient solutions with different P concentrations during various stages of development showed that a high P supply (1 ppm) between Feekes stages 6 and 9 (30 days) caused a higher grain yield than the same P concentration between Feekes stages 11 and 17 (30 days). The early applied P caused a high number of fertile ears per area, a high number of grains per ear, and a high P pool in vegetative parts. The latter could be mobilized during the grain-filling period. Therefore, for high grain yields soil and fertilizers have to meet the high P requirement (about 20 g P/m root · day) in an early stage of plant growth. During the grain filling period the P supply can be much lower.     

Deciphering the environmental impact on spike architectural traits for grain yield consolidation in bread wheat (T. aestivum L.)

The realization of grain yield in wheat is decided by source-sink balance under prevailing environmental conditions. Management conditions like changing the sowing time influence the source-sink capacity through modification in agronomic traits. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to decipher the influence of spike architectural traits (SATs) on grain yield and to open avenues for further grain yield enhancement. Comparatively early sowing over timely sowing gives the advantage of realizing higher grain yield with a positive relationship with SATs namely spike length, spikelets per spike, individual spike weight, individual grain weight, number of grains per spikelet, grain length, and grain width of upper and lower spike portion. Confirmatory factorial analysis revealed that spike length, spikelets per spike, individual spike weight, grains per spikelet were having a significant effect in deciding grain yield in early sown. The presence of a significant effect of genotype by environment interaction over grain yield and SATs allows the exploitation of available genotypic and environmental variability for further yield enhancement. GGE analysis on transformed and standardized grain yield-trait (GY-trait) combinations was used in the selection of genotypes having high GY-trait combinations for both sowing times. In early sowing, WG 11 was the best for high GY with high individual spike weight; grain length and grain width at lower and upper parts of the spike; and shorter days to 50% flowering. Genotypes exclusively having the high GY-trait combination along with low values of remaining GY-trait combinations were also selected with genotype focused GGE approach.