Maori hapuu and their History

Current research by historians and lawyers in Maori land and fisheries claims is broaching issues of Maori kinship calling for renewed social anthropological research. In this essay I review the history of social anthropological research in Maori kinship through 1975, a lapse in this research until the late 1980s, and a recent revival. A central problem of this research has been the conceptualisation of Maori hapuu (‘subtribes’) or cognatic descent groups. A critique of the recent analyses suggests that the early failure of social anthropologists to understand hapuu in historical context continues, although in different theoretical forms. The burgeoning research by historians and lawyers, while lacking fundamental anthropological insights, suggests that hapuu cannot be separated from their specific history.     

Pest problems: The view of Nga Whenua Rahui

Abstract

Nga Whenua Rahui began in the early 1980s, when Maori owners of commercially unproductive lands in Waikare (Northland) were being pressured into felling their native forests or selling property in order to meet their management costs, such as rates, fencing, and control of weeds and pests. The original concept recommended by the then Director of Maori Affairs, Tom Parore, was that a “rental” be paid by the Crown to Maori land owners as an incentive to keep their last remnants of indigenous forest alive and available for public enjoyment, and to cover the associated management costs.     

Property Rights in Fisheries: Iceland’s Experience with ITQs

The fundamental problem of economic inefficiency in fisheries, the so-called common property problem, may be seen to be caused by inadequate or lacking property rights in the underlying natural resources. The introduction of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) into fisheries represents an attempt to correct this failure. ITQs, however, are not property rights in the relevant natural resources, i.e. the fish stocks and their habitat. They are merely harvesting rights and thus far from ideal as property rights. Nevertheless, ITQs have been introduced in numerous fisheries around the world, apparently with generally, even consistently, good economic results. This paper outlines the basic theory of property rights and the strengths and weaknesses of ITQs as property rights in fisheries. The paper goes on to discuss the Icelandic ITQ system and compares its property rights value with that of the New Zealand ITQ system and the Norwegian IQ system. Finally, the paper reviews some measures of the economic outcomes of the ITQ system in Iceland.     

Purging the Frontier from our Mind: Crafting a New Fisheries Policy

American fishery policy is imprisoned by mental models that defeat coherence concerning the formulation of promising management futures. The idea of the frontier is at the core of current policy incoherence. Images—and specious accounts—of: (1) unowned fish; (2) IFQs/ITQs as property rights; (3) private ownership as necessary and sufficient for individuals (called owners) to suddenly become far-sighted stewards of nature; and (4) rights-based fisheries combine to defeat innovative thought about how to extricate ourselves from deep conceptual confusion. Until we purge the frontier—with its associated images—from our mind it will be difficult to undertake ecosystem management. More seriously, it will be impossible to rectify existing governance and management arrangements that are responsible for the degraded state of America’s fisheries.     

A classification of fishery management problems to aid in the analysis and proper formulation of management problems

Abstract

One of the most important reasons for regulating fisheries is the misallocation of resources caused by common property. Perhaps one explanation for the disagreement about what constitutes proper fisheries management is the fact that no distinction has been made between the common property problem that is somewhat unique to fisheries,’ and others, such as monopoly, monopsony, manpower training, etc., that are common to most other industries as well. It is here proposed that fisheries management be broken down, at least “conceptually, into common property management and special problem management. In this way the interrelationships between the two can be highlighted and at the same time special problem management can be viewed against the common background of the entire economy.     

Maori Sport and Cultural Identity in Australia

Sport is an important aspect of cultural identity for New Zealand Maori migrants living in Australia. Maori sporting endeavours, especially at festivals such as the Taki Toa Tournament in New South Wales, often reveal distinctive Maori features of cultural performance, in the rituals prior to a game, in the spirited manner with which a game is played, and in the whânau (large/extended family) spirit of belonging and celebration that is encouraged after a game. However, notwithstanding the occasional Maori tournament or festival, Maori sporting participation in Australia is not restricted to an ‘ethnic ghetto’. Widespread Maori involvement in sport has provided an important avenue for Maori migrants to mix socially with Aboriginal and other Australians in their local communities, and to gain acceptance, respect and, in some cases, economic advancement. Many first‐generation Maori migrants display a keen sense of a New Zealand rather than an Australian identity when it comes to trans‐Tasman international sport. Transnational links are also important for Australian Maori who visit New Zealand with sporting teams and stay on various marae (tribal meeting places). The experience of ‘Maori culture’ and hospitality offered by their New Zealand kinsfolk may have a significant influence upon the sporting visitors' subsequent development of Maori cultural identity.     

Predation Risk within Fishing Gear and Implications for South Australian Rock Lobster Fisheries

Depredation of southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) within fishing gear by the Maori octopus (Pinnoctopus cordiformis) has economic and ecological impacts on valuable fisheries in South Australia. In addition, depredation rates can be highly variable resulting in uncertainties for the fishery. We examined how in-pot lobster predation was influenced by factors such as lobster size and sex, season, fishing zone, and catch rate. Using mixed modelling techniques, we found that in-pot predation risk increased with lobster size and was higher for male lobsters. In addition, the effect of catch rate of lobsters on predation risk by octopus differed among fishing zones. There was both a seasonal and a spatial component to octopus predation, with an increased risk within discrete fishing grounds in South Australia at certain times of the year. Information about predation within lobster gear can assist fishery management decision-making, potentially leading to significant reduction in economic losses to the fishery.     

Ethnic differences in mortality from sudden infant death syndrome in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVES--To examine the factors which might explain the higher mortality from sudden infant death syndrome in Maori infants (7.4/1000 live births in 1986 compared with 3.6 in non-Maori children). DESIGN--A large nationwide case control study. SETTING--New Zealand. 485 infants who died of sudden infant death syndrome were compared with 1800 control infants. There were 229 Maori and 240 non-Maori cases of sudden infant death syndrome (16 cases unassigned) and 353 Maori and 1410 non-Maori controls (37 unassigned). RESULTS--Maori infants had 3.81 times the risk (95% confidence interval 3.06 to 4.76) of sudden infant death syndrome compared with non-Maori infants. The risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome within groups were remarkably similar. When Maori and non-Maori controls were compared the prevalence of many of the known risk factors was higher in Maori infants. In particular, mothers were socioeconomically disadvantaged, younger, and more likely to smoke and their infants were of lower birth weight and more likely to share a bed with another person. Multivariate analysis controlling for potential confounders found that simply being Maori increased the risk of sudden infant death syndrome by only 1.37 (95% CI = 0.95 to 2.01), not statistically significantly different from 1. Population attributable risk was calculated for prone sleeping position, maternal smoking, not breast feeding, and infants sharing a bed with another person. In total these four risk factors accounted for 89% of deaths from sudden infant death syndrome in Maori infants and 79% in non-Maori infants. CONCLUSION--The high rate of sudden infant death syndrome among Maori infants is based largely on the high prevalence in the Maori population of the major risk factors. Other risk factors, not related to ethnicity, probably explain remaining differences between Maori and non-Maori children.     

Effects of climate change on coral grouper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Plectropomus</Emphasis> spp.) and possible adaptation options

Global climate change is increasingly considered one of the major threats to tropical coastal fisheries, potentially undermining important revenue and food security provided by coral reef ecosystems. While there has been significant and increasing work on understanding specific effects of climate change on coral reef fishes, few studies have considered large-bodied fisheries target species, limiting understanding of the effects of climate change on tropical fisheries. This review focuses on coral grouper (Plectropomus spp., and mainly Plectropomus leopardus), which are heavily fished throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans, and represent an exemplar group to assess potential effects of climate change on coral reef fisheries. In experimental studies, P. leopardus appear to be extremely sensitive to increasing ocean temperature, exhibiting declines in survivorship, aerobic scope and activity with relatively moderate increases in temperature. As such, ongoing ocean warming may jeopardize the catchability of coral grouper and sustainability of reef-based fisheries, especially at low latitudes. Notably, a significant portion of wild stocks of P. leopardus are already exposed to temperatures (≥30 °C) that have been shown to compromise individual performance and body condition. While there are considerable knowledge gaps in predicting effects of global climate change on coral grouper, such as their capacity to avoid, acclimate or adapt to changes in local environmental conditions, current information suggests that there is cause for concern. As such, we take the formative steps to outline both ecological and socioeconomic adaptations that could reduce vulnerability of coral reef fisheries to climate impacts on stocks of coral grouper, using a linked socio-economic framework.     

Complete mitochondrial genome sequencing reveals novel haplotypes in a Polynesian population

The high risk of metabolic disease traits in Polynesians may be partly explained by elevated prevalence of genetic variants involved in energy metabolism. The genetics of Polynesian populations has been shaped by island hoping migration events which have possibly favoured thrifty genes. The aim of this study was to sequence the mitochondrial genome in a group of Maoris in an effort to characterise genome variation in this Polynesian population for use in future disease association studies. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes of 20 non-admixed Maori subjects using Affymetrix technology. DNA diversity analyses showed the Maori group exhibited reduced mitochondrial genome diversity compared to other worldwide populations, which is consistent with historical bottleneck and founder effects. Global phylogenetic analysis positioned these Maori subjects specifically within mitochondrial haplogroup--B4a1a1. Interestingly, we identified several novel variants that collectively form new and unique Maori motifs--B4a1a1c, B4a1a1a3 and B4a1a1a5. Compared to ancestral populations we observed an increased frequency of non-synonymous coding variants of several mitochondrial genes in the Maori group, which may be a result of positive selection and/or genetic drift effects. In conclusion, this study reports the first complete mitochondrial genome sequence data for a Maori population. Overall, these new data reveal novel mitochondrial genome signatures in this Polynesian population and enhance the phylogenetic picture of maternal ancestry in Oceania. The increased frequency of several mitochondrial coding variants makes them good candidates for future studies aimed at assessment of metabolic disease risk in Polynesian populations.     

The political economy of fish: The fishery conservation and management act of 1976

Abstract

This essay examines the management system created under the terms of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 as an example of a restricted common property regime. Both the origins and the operation of the regime are analyzed in detail. Additionally, the performance of the regime is assessed in terms of evaluative criteria like allocative efficiency, noneconomic values, equity, transaction costs, and durability. This case study points out a number of serious shortcomings of the FCMA regime and offers no basis for concluding that restricted common property constitutes a trouble‐free option in the marine fisheries or in any other realm. Nonetheless, the argument suggests that restricted common property not only has advantages over the traditional unrestricted or open‐to‐entry common property regime in the marine fisheries, it also seems more likely to yield satisfactory results than any other alternative that comes to mind.     

Kant goes fishing: Kant and the right to property in environmental resources

We can observe a connection between some serious environmental problems caused by the overexploitation of environmental resources and the particular conceptions of property rights that are claimed to hold with regard to these resources. In this paper, I investigate whether Kant's conception of property rights might constitute a basis for justifying property regimes that would overcome some of these environmental problems. Kant's argument for the right to property, put forward in his Doctrine of right, is complex. In Section , I attempt an interpretation. Section works out the defining characteristics of the conception of property rights that Kant's argument establishes and investigates their implications for determining property regimes in environmental resources. Kant proposes a minimalist notion of the right to property as a triadic relation between persons with regard to an object, justified only on the condition that it is universalizable in the given circumstances. I argue that this notion offers a promising account for determining property relations with regard to environmental resources. By way of illustration, in Section , I focus on an example of Kantian property rights in one type of environmental resource: the marine fisheries.     

Fisheries tenure in an African floodplain village and the implications for management

Floodplain fisheries make an important contribution to the total freshwater catch of Africa. Rules and institutions controlling access to these fisheries have received little attention in the literature. This paper explores property regimes operating in the Hadejia-Jama'are floodplain fishery, Nigeria, with a focus on a case-study village. Private, communal property, and open-access tenure regimes exist. The physical characteristics of the resources under each of these categories are differentiated. The economic cost of making resources more exclusive appears to be a key factor affecting tenure. However, the social benefits of communal access are also extremely important. In a risky environment that is characterized by spatial and temporal variation in the distribution of resources, maintaining rights of access to a wide geographical portfolio of resources is an important consideration. This is especially true considering recent environmental changes in the floodplain caused by dams and drought. This suggests that recommendations to improve productivity of the fishery by making access more exclusive may not maximize overall benefits from the fishery, since gains in productivity may be outweighed by losses in social benefits.     

A ‘Parallel process’? beginning a constructive conversation about a Mäori methodology

This paper documents the beginning of a conversation about what it means to be Maori within a larger, mainstream research project. This larger project was conceived by a team of researchers that included a Maori principal investigator, and funding was gained from a funding agency that has established criteria for Maori responsiveness. The Maori component of the project was, however, not initially conceived of as separate from the non-Maori component. Discussions about this were initiated approximately one year into the project in response to Maori team members' desires to undertake Kaupapa Maori research. This effectively means that the Maori team collects and analyses the Maori research data prior to re-engaging with the full research team. While there is a level of uncertainty about how this process will play itself out, there is a commitment to continue a constructive conversation within the team and to journey together in good faith and trust.     

The common property resource problem and the creation of limited property rights

Fish resources are generally considered common property and open to any user. This, the assumption goes, makes them susceptible to the tragedy of the commons in which selfish users are both the villains and the victims. While it is true that wild fish populations cannot readily be privatized, it hardly follows that they are completely open-access. In addition to social controls found in many traditional fishing communities, amply documented by anthropologists, many administrative controls in contemporary fisheries management also create limited property rights over fishery resources. This study focuses on Great Lakes fisheries of Ontario in Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and the kinds and diversity of limited property rights instituted in these areas: the formal and informal allocation of fishing areas, and the allocation of quantitative fishing rights (quotas), all of which serve as mechanisms to solve the common property resource problem. The Great Lakes fisheries suggest certain generalizations about the management of common property resources. The paper offers a life-cycle model of living resources use.     

Patches and pulses as fundamental characteristics for matching ecological and cultural diversity: the Baltic Sea archipelago

Focusing on the Baltic archipelago, we address the questions: to what extent are the rhythms of natural and social systems compatible and under which criteria can we make them coincide? Existing mismatches between resource availability and human demand are identified as well as human attempts to dampen ecosystem fluctuations. By means of examples from forestry and fisheries, we illustrate how changes in property rights and technology have altered the diversity and resilience of the archipelago system. Our results suggest that intermediate scale processes of years up to a century are most critical for bringing natural and cultural systems in concordance. The time frame relevant to management and policy in the archipelago seems to correlate with eutrophication processes and the regrowth of forests. In fisheries, a shift from traditional to recreational fisheries has created fishery patterns badly adapted to the dynamics of the coastal ecosystem in disregard of traditional ecological knowledge. A multipurpose and adaptive management of natural resources is advocated as the most appropriate approach for promoting ecological and cultural diversity in the Baltic archipelago. Existing mismatches between the two have to be addressed by governing institutions at many hierarchical levels.     

A critique of and recommendations for a subsistence fishery, Lake St Lucia, South Africa

The fish resources of Lake St Lucia, the largest estuary on the eastcoast of Africa, present resource managers of the Natal Parks Board with acommon property resource (CPR) problem. Problems associated with illegal gillnetting by local people from three tribal areas, prompted the introduction of asystem of legal, subsistence netting. This paper reviews the legal fisheries inthese three areas from 1995 to 1997, and examines existing organizationalarrangements, suggesting reasons why the three fisheries show differences infunctioning. By employing concepts from CPRs theory, elements of anorganizational design for fisheries management involving local users and theconservation organization staff are proposed.     

Regional implementation of alternative entry control policies and their role in fisheries management

Abstract

This paper reviews and examines the development of the concept of entry control policies in fisheries management. With renewed expectations for U. S. fisheries surrounding the recent enactment of legislation that extends jurisdiction over living resources within 200 mi, optimal management of an open‐access resource becomes an increasingly important public policy problem. The paper reviews alternative entry control schemes and criteria in order to evaluate their effectiveness and suggests ways in which limited entry could be implemented incrementally. It is argued that the appropriate combination of alternative limited‐entry mechanisms should take into account regional variables that affect the feasibility of entry controls for each particular fishery. It is also postulated that exploitation of an open‐access resource such as a fishery implies certain types of political behavior and outcomes that are analogous to economic behavior and outcomes in a common‐property resource environment. These characteristics of an openaccess resource, along with physical characteristics, tend to inhibit severely the rate of development of clearly defined property rights that would enhance the overall efficiency of the resource industry. The rate of development of property rights in an open‐access resource is a function of the cost of defining and enforcing these rights. The paper urges further identification and analysis of these “transactions costs,” which are largely a function of the political environment.     

Private Versus Common Property Forests: Forest Conditions and Tenure in a Honduran Community

Establishing secure tenure is widely recognized as a fundamental component of sustainable forest management. Policy-makers generally prefer privatization to achieve these ends, although common property institutions may also be appropriate. But if common property tenure is insecure and fails to control exploitation, theory predicts that private tenure should lead to better forest conditions. In this case study of a western Honduras community, forest mensuration data were collected from four private forests and two relatively open access common property forests. Statistical analyses failed to find consistent, significant differences in vegetation structure or soils related to tenure. Notable contrasts between forests reflected historical conditions and owner preferences. Neither form of tenure appeared to emphasize concerns for sustainable management, and ongoing processes of change constrained the possibility for limiting common property forest exploitation. The study adds to others which show that the outcomes of private or common property tenure relate substantially to the socioeconomic, political, and ecological context.     

Multiple identifications and the dialogical self: urban Maori youngsters and the cultural renaissance

The renaissance of Maori culture and tradition has played a significant role in the political campaigns of New Zealand's indigenous population over the past few decades. At the same time, however, it has brought to light that many Maori youngsters are unable to construct a cultural identity in terms of the discourses of culture and tradition that dominate the political arena. This article analyses the experience of urban Maori youngsters in ceremonial settings ( marae ) by examining the question of how they mediate different representations of their cultural identity within the self. It demonstrates that many young Maori people are engaged in a psychological dialogue between, on the one hand, the classic model for a Maori identity that prescribes them to embrace traditional culture and, on the other hand, their personal identification as outcasts in daily practices of New Zealand society.