Biotechnological potential of North Sea salt marsh plants—a review of traditional knowledge

Extreme environments are characterised by wide variations in physical factors. Tidal flats and their adjacent salt marshes along the North Sea coast experience this type of variability on a daily, seasonal and annual basis. Plants and animals living in these extreme environments have to adapt to these, at times rapid, changes. This can be done by developing specific physiological responses which often encompass the synthesis of unusual chemicals. A number of salt marsh plants have traditionally been used for medical, nutritional or even industrial purposes. Here, examples are presented for these plants.     

Mechanism for the small-scale movement of carbon among estuarine habitats: organic matter transfer not crab movement

In theory, carbon is highly mobile in aquatic systems. Recent evidence from carbon stable isotopes of crabs (Parasesarma erythrodactyla and Australoplax tridentata), however, shows that in subtropical Australian waters, measurable carbon movement between adjacent mangrove and saltmarsh habitats is limited to no more than a few metres. We tested whether the pattern in crab δ¹³C values across mangrove and saltmarsh habitats was explained by crab movement, or the movement of particulate organic matter. We estimated crab movement in a mark–recapture program using an array of pitfall traps on 13 transects (a total of 65 traps) covering an area of 600 m² across the interface of these two habitats. Over a 19-day period, the majority of crabs (91% for P. erythrodactyla, 93% for A. tridentata) moved <2 m from the place of initial capture. Crab movement cannot, therefore, explain the patterns in δ¹³C values of crabs. δ¹³C values of detritus collected at 2-m intervals across the same habitat interface fitted a sigmoidal curve of a similar form to that fitting the δ¹³C values of crabs. δ¹³C values of detritus were 2–4‰ more depleted in saltmarsh (−18.5±0.6‰), and 4–7‰ more depleted in mangroves (−25.9±0.1‰) than δ¹³C values of crabs recorded previously in each habitat. Assimilation by crabs of very small detrital fragments or microphytobenthos, more enriched in ¹³C, may explain the disparity in δ¹³C values. Nevertheless, the pattern in δ¹³C values of detritus suggests that crabs obtain their carbon from up to several metres away, but without themselves foraging more then a metre or so from their burrow. Such detailed measurements of carbon movement in estuaries provide a spatially explicit understanding of the functioning of food webs in saltmarsh and mangrove habitats.     

Short-term sedimentation in Tagus estuary,Portugal: the influence of salt marsh plants

Short-term sediment deposition was studied at four salt marsh areas in the Tagus estuary. In areas covered with Sarcocornia perennis, Sarcocornia fruticosa, Halimione portulacoides and Spartina maritima and also in the non-vegetated areas, sedimentation was measured as the monthly accumulation of sediments on nylon filters anchored on the soil surface, from August 2000 to May 2001. Our experiments were used also to determine the influence of the different plant species in vertical accretion rates. Short-term sedimentation rates (from 2.8 to 272.3 g m⁻² d⁻¹) did show significant differences when the four salt marshes studied in the Tagus estuary were compared to each others. Salt marshes closer to the sediment sources had higher sedimentation rates. Our results suggest that the salt marsh type and surface cover may provide small-scale variations in sedimentation and also that sediment deposition values do change according to the position of the different plant species within the salt marsh. Sedimentation is an essential factor in salt marsh vertical accretion studies and our investigation may provide support to help forecast the adaptative response of the Tagus estuary wetlands to future sea level rise.     

Seasonal carbon isotope discrimination in a grassland community

Summary Grassland communities of arid western North America are often characterized by a seasonal increase in ambient temperature and evaporative demand and a corresponding decline in soil moisture availability. As the environment changes, particular species could respond differently, which should be reflected in a number of physiological processes. Carbon isotope discrimination varies during photosynthetic activity as a function of both stomatal aperture and the biochemistry of the fixation process, and provides an integrated measure of plant response to seasonal changes in the environment. We measured the seasonal course of carbon isotope discrimination in 42 grassland species to evaluate changes in gas exchange processes in response to these varying environmental factors. The seasonal courses were then used to identify community-wide patterns associated with life form, with phenology and with differences between grasses and forbs. Significant differences were detected in the following comparisons: (1) Carbon isotope discrimination decreased throughout the growing season; (2) perennial species discriminated less than annual species; (3) grasses discriminated less than forbs; and (4) early flowering species discriminated more than the later flowering ones. These comparisons suggested that (1) species active only during the initial, less stressful months of the growing season used water less efficiently, and (2) that physiological responses increasing the ratio of carbon fixed to water lost were common in these grassland species, and were correlated with the increase in evaporative demand and the decrease in soil moisture.     

Salt marsh plant-microorganism interaction in the presence of mixed contamination

In this study we investigated under laboratory conditions, the combined effect of the presence of two contaminants (Cu and PAHs) and plants (Halimione portulacoides) on a salt marsh microbial community, in terms of genetic structure, abundance and capacity to remove those contaminants. Plants changed the microbial community structure (evaluated by ARISA), but only in the treatments without PAHs. Also, in the presence of plants, Cu displayed lower toxicity (ToxScreen test) than in its absence. Nevertheless, the presence of plants interfered with the degradation (decreasing it up to 45%) of higher molecular weight PAHs by sediment microorganisms. This was in agreement with the lower microbial numbers (quantified by DAPI) observed in the presence of the plants, pointing for a competition between plants and microorganisms for nutrients. These results are new for salt marshes, and highlight the need for fertilization in order to obtain optimal effects of rhizoremediation for this type of compounds.     

Does invasion of hybrid cordgrass change estuarine food webs?

Studies examining the impacts of introduced species on food webs often focus on the top-down effects of introduced predators. However, marine and estuarine systems have been invaded by plants that have the potential to alter carbon and nitrogen sources available to consumers. In San Francisco Bay, California, USA, hybridized cordgrass Spartina alterniflora × foliosa is adding C₄ carbon biomass to this system. We used natural abundances of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen to examine whether infaunal and epifaunal food webs reflected the large detrital input from hybrid Spartina. We compared stable isotope signatures among macrofaunal invertebrate consumers collected in hybrid Spartina, native S. foliosa, or unvegetated mudflats. We found no additional shift towards hybrid Spartina in hybrid areas. Structural changes brought about by an invasive ecosystem engineer, specifically increased biomass and detrital inputs, do not necessarily result in its increased incorporation into the food web.     

Rafting on wrack as a mode of dispersal for plants in coastal marshes

Here, I examine the potential for dead plant material, or wrack, to act as a vector of dispersal for plants among coastal marshes along the Palmer River in New England, USA. Three hundred mats of wrack floating along a 2.5 km section of river spanning tidal fresh, brackish and salt marshes were sampled for propagules of plants from May 1997 to October 1998. Thirty species of plants and 2 species of algae were associated with the wrack, and 24 of the plant species were viable under greenhouse conditions. Common and abundant species of tidal fresh, brackish and salt marshes were found in the wrack, as well as introduced and invasive species. Wrack contained plants suited to different modes of dispersal, including water, wind and adherence to animals. Measurements of the movement of individual mats of wrack along a 200 m section of the river indicated that wrack travelled at speeds ranging from 1.1 to 2.6 km h⁻¹, which translates to potential dispersal distances ranging from 6.5 to 15.9 km for one ebb or flood tide of 6 h duration. Tagged mats of wrack tracked for one ebb or flood tide travelled at least 2.5 km along the river. These results suggest that wrack may be an important agent of plant dispersal among coastal marshes in estuaries.     

环境条件对植物稳定碳同位素组成的影响

植物稳定碳同位素技术是近年兴起的一项快速、可靠的技术。利用稳定碳同位素技术可以揭示碳同化的过程的许多方面的信息。1 3C和1 2 C同位素效应 ,使它们在进行碳循环时发生稳定碳同位素的分馏。植物光合作用过程中CO2 经气孔扩散分差和RUBPCase及PEPCase羧化分馏是造成植物稳定碳同位素比率 (R =1 3C/ 1 2 C)不同于源CO2 中碳同位素比率的主要原因。遗传因素和环境因子同时决定植物碳同位素组成。植物稳定碳同位素技术同时还是古气候重建和预测未来环境变化的理论基础。本文综述了光照、温度、水分、二氧化碳、矿质营养、盐分和大气污染物等环境因素对植物稳定碳同位素组成影响方面的研究进展。     

Stable isotope and radiocarbon compositions of methane emitted from tropical rice paddies and swamps in Southern Thailand

Stable isotopes (¹³C, D) and radiocarbon weremeasured in methane bubbles emitted from rice paddies and swamps in southernThailand. Methane emitted from the Thai rice paddies was enriched in¹³C (mean ¹³C; –51.5 ±7.1 and–56.5 ± 4.6 for mineral soil and peat soil paddies,respectively)relative to the reported mean value of methane from temperate rice paddies(– 63 ± 5). Large seasonal variation was observed in¹³C(32) in the rice paddies, whereas variationinD was much more smaller (20), indicating that variation in¹³C is due mainly to changes in methane production pathways.Values of ¹³C were lower in swamps (–66.1 ±5.1)than in rice paddies. The calculated contribution of acetate fermentation from¹³C value was greater in rice paddies (mineral soils:62–81%, peat soils: 57–73%) than in swamps (27–42%). Din methane from Thai rice paddies (–324± 7 (n=46)) isrelativelyhigher than those from 14 stations in Japanese rice paddies ranging from–362 ± 5 (Mito: n=2) to –322 ± 8(Okinawa: n=3), due tohigher D in floodwaters. ¹⁴C content in methane produced fromThai rice paddies (127±1 pMC) show higher ¹⁴Cactivity compared with previous work in paddy fields and those from Thai swamps(110±2 pMC).     

Leaf carbon isotope discrimination and nitrogen content for riparian trees along elevational transects

 Leaf carbon isotope discrimination (Δ), seasonal estimates of the leaf-to-air water vapor gradient on a molar basis (ω), and leaf nitrogen contents were examined in three riparian tree species (Populus fremontii, P. angustifolia, and Salix exigua) along elevational transects in northern and southern Utah USA (1500–2670 m and 600–1820 m elevational gradients, respectively). The ω values decreased with elevation for all species along transects. Plants growing at higher elevations exhibited lower Δ values than plants at lower elevations (P. fremontii, 22.9‰ and 19.5‰, respectively; P. angustifolia, 23.2‰ and 19.2‰, respectively; and S.␣exigua, 21.1‰ and 19.1‰, respectively). Leaf nitrogen content increased with elevation for all species, suggesting that photosynthetic capacity at a given intercellular carbon dioxide concentration was greater at higher elevations. Leaf Δ and nitrogen content values were highly correlated, implying that leaves with higher photosynthetic capacities also had lower intercellular carbon dioxide concentrations. No significant interannual differences were detected in carbon isotope discrimination. Received: 25 February 1996 / Accepted: 8 September 1996     

Effects of nitrogen nutrition on xylem sap composition of Casuarinaceae

Summary Effect of moisture stress on photosynthesis activity ofSpartina alterniflora was studied using sediment cores taken from a Louisiana Gulf Coast salt marsh. Moisture stress was induced by evapotranspiration losses which simulate conditions that can occur when a salt marsh is not inundated by tidal cycles for extended periods. Changes in the sediment moisture from 70% to 28% when expressed as a percentage of the wet weight resulted in a rapid decrease in net CO₂ fixation. The moisture content of this sediment remained above saturation throughout the experiment although the solute or osmotic potential was equivalent to being in the range between field capacity and permanent willing. Net fixation was correlated with the moisture content (r=0.92^**). Plant photosynthetic activity decreased at sediment moisture levels below 70%.     

The stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of vegetation in tropical forests of the Amazon Basin, Brazil

Here we present the within-site, seasonal, and interannual variations of the carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope ratios of leaves, wood, bark and litter from four sites in the Amazon region, Brazil. Samples were collected in Manaus (3° 06′07′′ S; 60°01′30′′ W), Ji-Paraná (10°53′07′′ S; 61°57′06′′ W), and Santarém (2°26′35′′ S; 54°42′30′′ W) with mean annual precipitation of 2207, 2040 and 1909 mm respectively. The overall average for all leaf samples was for δ¹³C and for δ¹⁵N (n=756). The leaf δ values at these sites were often but not always statistically distinct from each other. The δ¹³C values varied from to . Pronounced differences in δ¹³C values occurred with height associated with differences in forest structure. The δ¹³C of leaf dry matter showed seasonal variations associated with the length of the dry season, despite the fact that total annual precipitation was similar among the studied sites. Leaf δ¹⁵N values ranged from to a maximum value of , and the Santarém sites showed more enriched values than Manaus and Ji-Paraná sites. No seasonal variation was detected in the δ¹⁵N of leaves, but significant differences were observed among sites and with changes in canopy height. The isotope ratio data are consistent with our current understanding of the roles of light, water availability, and recycling of soil-respired CO₂ influences on δ¹³C and consistent with our understanding that an open nitrogen cycle can lead to high δ¹⁵N values despite a significant number of legumes in the vegetation.     

中国盐沼湿地蓝碳碳汇研究进展

滨海蓝碳主要指被红树林、盐沼湿地、海草床等蓝碳生态系统所固定的碳,这部分碳对于减缓气候变暖意义重大。其中盐沼湿地作为我国面积最大、分布广泛的滨海湿地,受到人类活动的扰动较多,其碳汇估算的数据缺乏系统性与完整性。通过收集我国的盐沼湿地相关研究与数据,本文对我国盐沼湿地的分布现状及其碳储量、碳埋藏、碳来源、温室气体通量进行了总结,其中我国盐沼湿地的分布面积为(1.27~3.43)×10⁵hm²,总碳储量为(7.5±0.6) Tg,碳埋藏速率为7~955 g C/(m²·a),非CO₂温室气体通量分别为23.6~986 μg CH₄/(m²·h)和1.58~110 μg N₂O/(m²·h)。本文系统梳理了有关我国盐沼湿地碳汇功能的研究,指出我国盐沼湿地碳循环研究仍需加深对机制机理的解析和关键调控因子的探究,以期让盐沼湿地蓝碳为我国的碳达峰与碳中和战略做出更大贡献。     

Horizontal distribution of carbon and nitrogen and their isotopic compositions in the surface sediment of Lake Biwa

The horizontal distribution of the abundance and isotopic composition of carbon and nitrogen was studied on surface sediment samples (0–15 cm) collected from the entire area of Lake Biwa, the largest freshwater lake in Japan. As water depth increased, a marked increase in organic matter content was observed at the sampling sites, especially in the western North Basin, characterized by a steep slope. In the northwestern North Basin, which has no major inflowing streams, the sediments contained large amounts of organic matter, suggesting the possibility of lateral transportation of sedimented matter from other places by lake currents. The total amounts of carbon and nitrogen in the top-2 cm of sediment of the entire area of Lake Biwa were estimated to be 9.2 × 10⁴ tC and 1.0 × 10⁴ tN. The δ¹⁵N values in the littoral sediment were low and close to those in the inflowing river sediment, suggesting selective sedimentation of allochthonous organic matter onto the littoral area. In the North Basin, vertical profiles of organic matter content and δ¹³C values of the sediments in the littoral area showed a smaller downward decrease than in the profundal area, whereas δ¹⁵N values decreased with sediment depth in both areas. It was suggested that the littoral sediments contained abundant amounts of allochthonous and relatively refractory organic matter. Further, it was suggested that the autochthonous organic matter originated from primary production deposited mainly on the profundal zone and was easily decomposed in early diagenesis after sedimentation. Received: July 30, 1999 / Accepted: December 10, 1999     

Contributions of C3 and C4 plants to higher trophic levels in an Amazonian savanna

We studied the energy flow from C₃ and C₄ plants to higher trophic levels in a central Amazonian savanna by comparing the carbon stable-isotope ratios of potential food plants to the isotope ratios of species of different consumer groups. All C₄ plants encountered in our study area were grasses and all C₃ plants were bushes, shrubs or vines. Differences in δ¹³C ratios among bushes (xˉ = −30.8, SD = 1.2), vines (xˉ = −30.7, SD = 0.46) and trees (xˉ = −29.7, SD = 1.5) were small. However the mean δ¹³C ratio of dicotyledonous plants (xˉ = −30.4, SD = 1.3) was much more negative than that of the most common grasses (xˉ = −13.4, SD = 0.27). The insect primary consumers had δ¹³C ratios which ranged from a mean of −29.5 (SD = 0.47) for the grasshopper Tropidacris collaris to a mean of −14.7 (SD = 0.56) for a termite (Nasutitermes sp.), a range similar to that of the vegetation. However, the common insectivorous and omnivorous vertebrates had intermediate values for δ¹³C, indicating that carbon from different autotrophic sources mixes rapidly as it moves up the food chain. Despite this mixing, the frogs and lizards generally had higher values of δ¹³C (xˉ = −21.7, SD = 1.6; xˉ = −21.9, SD = 1.8, respectively) than the birds (xˉ = −24.8, SD = 1.8) and the only species of mammal resident in the savanna (xˉ = −25.4), indicating that they are generally more dependent on, or more able to utilise, food chains based on C₄ grasses. Received: 7 May 1998 / Accepted: 30 November 1998     

相近社会等级先民的食物结构差异——以山西聂店遗址为例

一般认为,先民食物结构的差异是人类不同社会等级的重要表现形式之一。然而,对于考古学资料中未见明显等级差异的先民来说,其是否存在食物结构上的差别,仍需认真加以探讨。为此,本文对山西聂店遗址墓葬(基本无随葬品或随葬品较少)中出土的人骨进行了C、N稳定同位素分析,研究结果表明:先民的食物结构,体现了典型中国北方农业经济的特点,即以粟作农业和家畜饲养为生。此外,尽管在考古学意义上聂店先民的等级相近,但其在食物资源的获取上却显示出明显差异,且这种差异与先民的性别、年龄和随葬品的种类和多寡无关。因此,在社会等级较为模糊的人类社会,先民对食物资源的获取,很可能更多地受到人群组成、生活习惯等因素的影响,而与社会等级的相对高低无关。     

A comparative study of above-ground productivity of dominant U.S. Gulf Coast marsh species

Above-ground productivity of dominant freshwater, brackish, and salt-marsh species from the U.S. Gulf Coast was evaluated using both gas exchange techniques and harvest methods. Both techniques showed significant differences in productivity among the study species which represent major components of their respective communities. Estimates of net aerial primary productivity using the harvest method yielded 3683 g dw (dry weight) m^?2yr^?1 for Spartina alterniflora (tall), 2008 g dw m^?2yr^?1 for S. alterniflora (short), 3677 g dw m^?yr^?1 for S. patens and 1641 g dwm^?yr^?1 for Panicum hemitomon. Carbon balance estimated from gas exchange calculation yielded values approximately equivalent to a biomass accumulation of 6024 g dw m^?2yr^?1 for S. alterniflora (tall), 3047 g dw m^?yr^?1 for S. alterniflora (short), 5702 g dw m^?yr^?1 for S. patens, and 2912 g dm^?yr^?1 for P. hemitomon. The net aerial primary production was estimated to be approximately 61% of total productivity in S. alterniflora (tall-form) and 66%o of total productivity in short-form, 64% in S. patens and 56%) in P. hemitomon. The assimilation data also indicated that Spartina alterniflora and S. patens continue carbon fixation throughout the year while assimilation in Panicum hemitomon is absent due to lack of live leaves during the winter. Various aspects of harvest and gas exchange techniques are discussed.     

Utilization of prey from the decomposer system by generalist predators of grassland

We investigated the linkage between the detrital subsystem and generalist predators of meadow ecosystems by manipulating prey availability in two different ways: we increased resource availability for the decomposer subsystem and thereby decomposer prey by adding mulch materials (detritus enhancement), and we added fruitflies (Drosophila melanogaster, Diptera; prey enhancement) to fenced plots. Both supplemented materials significantly differed in their ¹³C/¹²C and ¹⁵N/¹⁴N ratios from those of the natural litter. We measured density responses of detritivorous, herbivorous and predaceous arthropods to the increased resource supply. We used ratios of natural stable isotopes of N and C in arthropod tissues to trace the flux from the added resources to consumers and to relate density responses of consumers to changes in resource supply. Effects of resource enhancement propagated through at least two trophic levels, resulting in higher densities of major decomposer and predator taxa. Effects of detritus enhancement were much stronger than those of prey enhancement. Signatures of δ¹³C proved density responses of Collembola taxa to be related to the added mulch materials. Among generalist predators, densities of juvenile wolf spiders (Lycosidae) responded more to detritus-enhancement than to prey-enhancement treatments. In contrast, the density of the web-building linyphiid and the non-web gnaphosid spiders remained unaffected. Each spider taxon, including those which did not respond numerically, was significantly enriched in ¹³C in detritus-enhancement treatments, suggesting that they gain energy from the decomposer system. Numbers of herbivores—cicadellids and aphids—were similar in each of the treatments, indicating that they were unaffected by changes in predator density. Our results indicate that the lack of a numerical response to resource supplementation is not necessarily due to the absence of a trophic linkage, but may be caused by compensatory changes in mortality factors such as cannibalism and intraguild predation.