Assessing habitat diversity and potential areas of similarity across protected areas globally

Biophysical characterization analyses of protected areas (PA) that provide information on their ecological values and potential areas with similar characteristics are needed to make informed PA network planning and management decisions. This study combines and further develops methodologies that use remote sensing and modelling to identify habitat functional types in PAs and map similar areas at the ecoregion level. The study also develops new terrestrial habitat diversity and irreplaceability indices at habitat and PA scale that allow the comparison and ranking of PAs in terms of biophysical gradients and singular environmental conditions. Six PAs were selected to highlight and discuss the results of the proposed methodology. Both individual and composite indices should be considered when trying to compare PAs to understand the overall complexity and ecological values of each PA. Results can inform planning and management of individual and protected area networks as well as identify new areas for conservation. The information provided by the model about similar habitats outside protected areas can also help assess their representativeness and support studies to strengthen ecological connectivity. Besides systematic comparisons, detailed assessments of protected areas can also be performed using medium and high-resolution input variables. This is especially relevant for protected areas in developing countries where undertaking fieldwork is very difficult and the budget devoted to conservation is limited.     

Assessing habitat suitability for tiger in the fragmented Terai Arc Landscape of India and Nepal

Tiger Panthera tigris populations have declined dramatically in the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL; India and Nepal), and remaining populations are highly fragmented and endangered. As part of a research program to aid tiger management by identifying critical areas for conservation, we aimed to 1) identify the factors which affect the distribution of tigers in the TAL; 2) explore the role of spatial scale in habitat selection; 3) map potentially suitable habitats; and 4) assess the quality of potential corridors linking suitable habitats. We used an approach based on presence and pseudo‐absence data, combining ecological niche factor analysis and generalized linear models. We used an information‐theoretic approach to compare our data on tiger presence with different hypotheses on tiger habitat selection (i.e. protective habitat, prey species, human disturbance), and spatial scales. All hypotheses yielded models with high prediction accuracy (>79%). The most parsimonious model included variables characterizing habitat suitability of the 2 main prey species. More detailed assessment of potentially suitable areas using an extended source‐sink approach suggested that most of the habitats outside the protected areas were attractive sink‐like habitats (i.e. they suffered high levels of human disturbance in otherwise good habitats). Overall, 24% (ca 18 500 km²) of the study area was predicted as suitable (probability cut‐off p>0.5), approximately 7% of which is under protection. Our models showed that protecting the remaining concentrations of tigers requires focusing management efforts on specific areas outside the currently protected areas. These are characterized by good natural suitability; however, they suffer from a high level of human disturbance. Our models underscore the importance of minimizing human disturbances in these areas to avoid that they act as attractive sinks but act as corridors between existing subpopulations.     

Hybridization between closely related songbirds is related to human habitat disturbance

Human habitat disturbances can promote hybridization between closely related, but typically reproductively isolated, species. We explored whether human habitat disturbances are related to hybridization between two closely related songbirds, black-capped and mountain chickadees, using both genomic and citizen science data sets. First, we genotyped 409 individuals from across both species' ranges using reduced-representation genome sequencing and compared measures of genetic admixture to a composite measure of human landscape disturbance. Then, using eBird observations, we compared human landscape disturbance values for sites where phenotypically diagnosed hybrids were observed to locations where either parental species was observed to determine whether hybrid chickadees are reported in more disturbed areas. We found that hybridization between black-capped and mountain chickadees positively correlates with human habitat disturbances. From genomic data, we found that (1) hybrid index (HI) significantly increased with habitat disturbance, (2) more hybrids were sampled in disturbed habitats, (3) mean HIs were higher in disturbed habitats versus wild habitats, and (4) hybrids were detected in habitats with significantly higher disturbance values than parentals. Using eBird data, we found that both hybrid and black-capped chickadees were significantly more disturbance-associated than mountain chickadees. Surprisingly, we found that nearly every black-capped chickadee we sampled contained some proportion of hybrid ancestry, while we detected very few mountain chickadee backcrosses. Our results highlight that hybridization between black-capped and mountain chickadees is widespread, but initial hybridization is rare (few F1s were detected). We conclude that human habitat disturbances can erode pre-zygotic reproductive barriers between chickadees and that post-zygotic isolation is incomplete. Understanding what becomes of recently hybridizing species following large-scale habitat disturbances is a new, but pressing, consideration for successfully preserving genetic biodiversity in a rapidly changing world.     

Improved methods for measuring forest landscape structure: LiDAR complements field-based habitat assessment

Conservation and monitoring of forest biodiversity requires reliable information about forest structure and composition at multiple spatial scales. However, detailed data about forest habitat characteristics across large areas are often incomplete due to difficulties associated with field sampling methods. To overcome this limitation we employed a nationally available light detection and ranging (LiDAR) remote sensing dataset to develop variables describing forest landscape structure across a large environmental gradient in Switzerland. Using a model species indicative of structurally rich mountain forests (hazel grouse Bonasa bonasia), we tested the potential of such variables to predict species occurrence and evaluated the additional benefit of LiDAR data when used in combination with traditional, sample plot-based field variables. We calibrated boosted regression trees (BRT) models for both variable sets separately and in combination, and compared the models’ accuracies. While both field-based and LiDAR models performed well, combining the two data sources improved the accuracy of the species’ habitat model. The variables retained from the two datasets held different types of information: field variables mostly quantified food resources and cover in the field and shrub layer, LiDAR variables characterized heterogeneity of vegetation structure which correlated with field variables describing the understory and ground vegetation. When combined with data on forest vegetation composition from field surveys, LiDAR provides valuable complementary information for encompassing species niches more comprehensively. Thus, LiDAR bridges the gap between precise, locally restricted field-data and coarse digital land cover information by reliably identifying habitat structure and quality across large areas.     

Spatial distribution, connectivity, and the influence of scale: habitat availability for the endangered Mona Island rock iguana

The Caribbean region is one of the five leading biodiversity hotspots in the world. Analysis of the spatial structure of critical habitats and how it affects endemic species in this region is essential baseline information for biodiversity monitoring and management. We quantified and evaluated the spatial structure and connectivity of depression forests on Mona Island and their potential impact on Mona Island rock iguana habitat, as a framework to assess spatial distribution, connectivity, and the issue of scale in small and widely dispersed habitats. Using IKONOS imagery, we mapped and delineated depression forests at four different scales (minimum mapping units: <100, 100, 500, and 1,000 m), and calculated landscape metrics describing their spatial structure, and connectivity, for each map resolution. Our approach resulted in a more detailed map than previously described maps, providing better information on habitat connectivity for iguanas. The comparison of the island landscape mapped at different scales provided evidence on how changing scales affect the output of spatial metrics and may have a significant impact when planning decisions and assigning conservation priorities. It also highlighted the importance of adequate ecological scales when addressing landscape management and conservation priorities. The analysis of landscapes at multiple scales provided a mechanism to evaluate the role of patch detection and its effect on the interpretation of connectivity and spatial structure of suitable areas for species with small and widely dispersed habitats. These methodologies can be applied other species, in different environments, with similar limitations related to connectivity and habitat availability.     

农田非作物生境调控与害虫综合治理

就害虫综合治理的研究而言,农田生态系统可以区分出作物生境和邻近作物的非作物生境。昆虫从作物生境迁移到非作物生境,与作物生境缺乏食物或受人类栽培活动干扰而引起的自然迁移、转换寄主和寻求庇护场所有关。许多研究表明,与特定作物田块相联系的植被类型和结构可影响害虫及其天敌迁居的种类、数量和时间。因此,我们可以通过改变大田周围非作物生境的植被组成及特征来调控农业生态系统中害虫与天敌的相互关系,提高天敌对害虫的控制效能。由于景观的空间格局对节肢动物的生物学特性有直接或间接的影响,所以,以景观为单元要比以同类作物的田块为单元更加适于害虫综合治理的研究和实施。在现代农业景观区域内重新引入和相嵌一些非栽培植物或廊道,可为众多有益节肢动物的繁殖、取食和避害提供多种类型的非作物栖境。     

Selection and application of spatial indicators for nature conservation at different institutional levels

As European integration increasingly affects pan-European nature conservation, indicators for the assessment of habitats are urgently needed to support ecosystem integrity monitoring as well as the target of halting biodiversity loss by 2010. The Natura 2000 network of protected sites with a strong focus on the protection of habitat types and strict monitoring obligations is now legally binding for all Member States. From a set of indicators that have been proposed for habitat monitoring by the SPIN project (Spatial Indicators for European Nature Conservation) we describe measures of landscape structure and soil function and their potential for the monitoring and management of protected areas and the surrounding landscape. In a case study from Austria, we show that structure-related indicators hold potential for the documentation of local-scale changes on a degraded raised bog Natura 2000 site. In a regional scale case study in northern Germany, we show how landscape metrics relate agricultural statistics, e.g. farm size and livestock density to landscape structure. In a third case study from Slovenia, we show how coarse-scale soil data can be disaggregated to finer scale by integrating topographic information and additional parameters for modelling, and production of soil-related habitat suitability maps. From these case studies we provide an overview of some of the critical issues affecting the selection and application of spatial indicators for nature conservation monitoring tasks. End users of spatial indicators work at different scales and in different biogeographical regions. The indicator selection and application demonstrated in our three case studies reveals the capability to contribute to a more quantitative evidence base for monitoring and management of biodiversity in Europe.     

Climate,landscape, habitat,and woodland management associations with hazel dormouse Muscardinus avellanarius population status

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老爷岭南部狍冬季移动、卧息生境选择及其适宜性评价

在动物生境研究中,移动生境和卧息生境是生境研究的焦点。开展移动生境和卧息生境选择,并在此基础上进行生境评价,有利于深入了解动物对移动和卧息生境条件的需求,制定科学合理的栖息地保护计划。以东北虎（Panthera tigris altaica）的主要猎物物种之一-狍（Capreolus pygargus）为研究对象,于2017-2019年冬季积雪覆盖期在老爷岭南部通过随机布设28个大样方和84条用于足迹链跟踪的样线收集狍的移动点和卧息点信息,再结合近年来收集的东北虎出现点,利用广义可加模型（GAM）和最大熵模型（MaxEnt）进行狍移动、卧息生境选择及评价研究。移动生境选择研究表明,狍在移动的过程中偏好选择坡度小、距农田距离>500 m、远离道路、居民点和低海拔或较高海拔的区域;移动生境评价分析表明,移动适宜和次适宜生境面积之和为1318.16 km²,占研究区域面积的51.28%,当加入虎活动点影响因子后,狍移动适宜和次适宜生境面积之和为901.52 km²,适宜和次适宜生境面积之和减少了31.61%。狍卧息生境选择研究表明,水源、农田、道路和雪深是影响狍卧息的关键因素,其中雪深对狍卧息生境选择的贡献率达到70.13%;卧息生境评价表明,卧息适宜和次适宜生境面积之和为1243.77 km²,占研究区域面积的48.39%,当加入虎出现点因子后,适宜生境和次适宜生境面积之和减少了61.00%,仅为485.02 km²。研究认为,虎的出现对狍移动和卧息生境选择均产生影响,虎的活动及捕食行为可能会减少狍的活动范围和频次,狍远离虎活动区域卧息休息,压缩了狍适宜卧息的空间。     

Integration of ground survey and remote sensing derived data: Producing robust indicators of habitat extent and condition

The availability of suitable habitat is a key predictor of the changing status of biodiversity. Quantifying habitat availability over large spatial scales is, however, challenging. Although remote sensing techniques have high spatial coverage, there is uncertainty associated with these estimates due to errors in classification. Alternatively, the extent of habitats can be estimated from ground‐based field survey. Financial and logistical constraints mean that on‐the‐ground surveys have much lower coverage, but they can produce much higher quality estimates of habitat extent in the areas that are surveyed. Here, we demonstrate a new combined model which uses both types of data to produce unified national estimates of the extent of four key habitats across Great Britain based on Countryside Survey and Land Cover Map. This approach considers that the true proportion of habitat per km² (Z_i) is unobserved, but both ground survey and remote sensing can be used to estimate Z_i. The model allows the relationship between remote sensing data and Z_i to be spatially biased while ground survey is assumed to be unbiased. Taking a statistical model‐based approach to integrating field survey and remote sensing data allows for information on bias and precision to be captured and propagated such that estimates produced and parameters estimated are robust and interpretable. A simulation study shows that the combined model should perform best when error in the ground survey data is low. We use repeat surveys to parameterize the variance of ground survey data and demonstrate that error in this data source is small. The model produced revised national estimates of broadleaved woodland, arable land, bog, and fen, marsh and swamp extent across Britain in 2007.     

Landscape structure and management regime as indicators of calcareous grassland habitat condition and species diversity

This study investigates the importance of spatial landscape characteristics and habitat management on the condition of calcareous grassland in the North Down Natural Area, Kent UK. We used a digitised map of the study area containing shapefiles of all the habitats including 82 patches of calcareous grassland together with management information for each patch and data on the presence and abundance of a range of calcareous grassland indicator plant species. We defined habitat condition by presence of indicator species and used classification trees to generate models with rules for predicting habitat condition from the landscape spatial characteristics and management information. We also applied the same method to investigate the factors affecting presence or diversity of three ecological groups of positive indicator species and dominance of a negative indicator species. All the models except one showed good classification accuracy and high kappa statistic. Favourable habitat condition was predicted by presence of different types of grazing management, presence of woodland around patches of calcareous grassland and shape complexity. These results indicate that calcareous grassland in favourable condition is management-dependent but also located in less intensively managed landscapes. Unfavourable habitat condition was predicted by threat factors such as lack of management and high incidence of arable or improved grassland around patches of calcareous grassland, indicating nutrient enrichment and habitat degradation. Some of these factors also predicted high diversity of the different ecological species groups. The value of this method for predicting habitat condition and species diversity from baseline ecological data for conservation monitoring at the landscape level is emphasised.     

Multi‐scale effects of habitat structure and landscape context on a vertebrate with limited dispersal ability (the brown‐throated sloth,Bradypus variegatus)

As human population, food consumption, and demand for forest products continue to rise over the next century, the pressures of land‐use change on biodiversity are projected to intensify. In tropical regions, countryside habitats that retain abundant tree cover and structurally complex canopies may complement protected areas by providing suitable habitats and landscape connectivity for a significant portion of the native biota. Species with low dispersal capabilities are among the most at risk of extinction as a consequence of land‐use change. We assessed how the spatial distribution of the brown‐throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus), a model species for a vertebrate with limited dispersal ability, is shaped by differences in habitat structure and landscape patterns of countryside habitats in north‐central Costa Rica using a multi‐scale framework. We quantified the influence of local habitat characteristics and landscape context on sloth occurrence using mixed‐effects logistic regression models. We recorded 27 sloths within countryside habitats and found that both local and landscape factors significantly influenced their spatial distribution. Locally, sloths favored structurally complex habitats, with greater canopy cover and variation in tree height and basal area. At the landscape scale, sloths demonstrated a preference for habitats with high proportions of forest and nearby large tracts of forest. Although mixed‐use areas and tree plantations are not substitutes for protected forests, our results suggest they provide important supplemental habitats for sloths. To promote the conservation and long‐term viability of sloth populations in the tropical countryside, we recommend that land managers retain structurally complex vegetation and large patches of native habitat.     

基于东北虎潜在栖息地保护的自然保护地整合

东北虎(Panthera tigris altaica)是我国国家一级重点保护野生动物,现主要分布在张广才岭、老爷岭和完达山等地的几个自然保护区内。在这些自然保护区周边还分布有大量的森林公园、风景名胜区、湿地公园等不同类型的自然保护地,这些自然保护地在一定程度上也可为东北虎提供栖息场所,但管理目标、管理体制等原因造成了人为的范围隔离、空间重叠等各种乱象。为响应我国建立以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系,为东北虎豹国家公园建设提供支撑,本文基于44个东北虎分布点信息和11个相关环境因子,利用MaxEnt模型对东北虎的潜在栖息地进行了预测。基于东北虎栖息地范围内的国家级自然保护区、国家森林公园,国家湿地公园等自然保护地与东北虎栖息地的适宜性等级分布格局,利用成本距离法对东北虎栖息地范围内的自然保护地进行了整合研究。结果发现:(1)东北虎在我国的潜在适宜分布区主要集中在穆棱市、珲春市、敦化市、宁安市、延吉市、海林市、东宁县、汪清县、饶河县、宝清县,共约10000 km2,占黑龙江、吉林二省总面积的1.5%;(2)东北虎潜在扩散区共约51000 km2,占黑龙江、吉林二省总面积的8%;(3)以成...     

三江源地区雪豹保护优先区规划

为了将有限资源合理投放到关键区域, 实现物种保护成效的最大化, 找出质量最好的栖息地及它们之间的迁徙通道是制定保护规划的第一步。本研究以三江源的雪豹(Panthera uncia)栖息地为对象, 基于野外调查数据和高分辨率卫星遥感数据, 利用物种分布模型、保护规划模型和连通度分析工具, 找出了三江源地区雪豹的核心栖息地分布和潜在迁徙通道位置, 分析了目前保护中的潜在威胁, 并提出了针对三江源西、中、东三块区域的不同保护对策。结果表明: (1)三江源西部核心栖息地比较小而破碎, 但迁徙通道较多且没有明显窄点, 未来应关注青藏线的潜在阻碍作用, 同时应防范道路沿线的野生动物盗猎; (2)中部区域横跨玉树-杂多-囊谦的雪豹栖息地是三江源最大的核心雪豹栖息地, 在连通其他种群中也处于中心地位, 应通过种群监测确定其健康稳定, 对开发、偷猎等威胁防微杜渐, 保持其源种群的作用; (3)东部区域人口密度高, 受人类活动的影响最大, 需保证阿尼玛卿、年保玉则两块核心栖息地的质量, 并重点监测甘德县境内的省道处雪豹的迁徙通道是否畅通。三江源地区雪豹栖息地总体质量较好, 建议将维持核心源种群的稳定性, 保持种群间迁徙通道的畅通作为三江源的雪豹景观保护工作的整体目标。未来应充分利用天地一体化监测手段, 开展重要保护物种栖息地状况的评估和预警, 尤其是非保护地区域物种核心栖息地的开发建设活动。     

印度野牛在中国的分布及其栖息地适宜性分析

印度野牛(Bos gaurus)在中国分布在云南省南部和西藏藏南地区。2016年2-3月和2016年11-12月, 我们在西双版纳州、普洱市及高黎贡山区域开展印度野牛调查, 并对藏南地区进行文献调研, 共获得47处印度野牛有效出现位点数据。目前云南地区印度野牛种群数量约180-210头, 面临着严重的生存危机; 在高黎贡山未发现印度野牛。利用印度野牛分布位点数据, 选取地形、土地覆被类型、人类足迹指数、距水源和道路距离以及气候共5类14种因子作为自变量建立MaxEnt生态位模型, 通过模拟云南和西藏印度野牛的适宜分布区, 分析各环境因子对该物种分布的影响。结果表明: 模型预测精度较高, 平均AUC (area under the curve)值为0.994。印度野牛潜在适宜栖息地可划分为高适宜、次适宜、低适宜和不适宜4个等级。高适宜栖息地主要分布在云南省西双版纳和藏南地区, 其中西双版纳部分镶嵌有次适宜和低适宜栖息地斑块, 面积为4,987 km²; 藏南部分高适宜栖息地面积为13,995 km²。次适宜栖息地主要分布于云南省南部、高黎贡山区域以及藏南高适宜栖息地区的边缘, 总面积为32,778 km²。低适宜和不适宜栖息地区连接成片, 位于云南省中部、北部地区和藏南地区北部。Jackknife检验结果显示, 季节温度变化和等温线对印度野牛潜在分布区的影响较大, 而地形因子和降水变化的影响较弱。遥感地物分类结果表明: 橡胶林等人工经济林的种植占据了西双版纳野牛的适宜栖息地, 降低了景观连接度。建议管理部门加大对天然林的保护力度, 控制橡胶林等人工林在野牛适宜栖息地的扩张, 提高景观连接度, 以促进该物种种群的恢复。     

Primates Living Outside Protected Habitats Are More Stressed: The Case of Black Howler Monkeys in the Yucatán Peninsula

The non-invasive monitoring of glucocorticoid hormones allows for the assessment of the physiological effects of anthropogenic disturbances on wildlife. Variation in glucocorticoid levels of the same species between protected and unprotect areas seldom has been measured, and the available evidence suggests that this relationship may depend on species-specific habitat requirements and biology. In the present study we focused on black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra), a canopy-dwelling primate species, as a case study to evaluate the physiological consequences of living in unprotected areas, and relate them with intragroup competition and competition with extragroup individuals. From February 2006 to September 2007 we collected 371 fecal samples from 21 adults belonging to five groups (two from protected and three from unprotected areas) in Campeche, Mexico. We recorded agonistic interactions within groups and encounters with other groups (1,200 h of behavioral observations), and determined fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations with radioimmunoassays. We used linear mixed models and Akaike''s information criterion to choose the best model explaining variation in FGM concentrations between protected and unprotected areas calculated from five categorical variables: habitat type (protected vs. unprotected), participation in agonistic interactions, intergroup encounters, sex and female reproductive state, and season. The best model included habitat type, the interaction between habitat type and agonism, and the interaction between habitat type and season. FGM concentrations were higher in unprotected habitats, particularly when individuals were involved in agonistic interactions; seasonal variation in FGM concentrations was only detected in protected habitats. High FGM concentrations in black howler monkeys living in unprotected habitats are associated with increased within-group food competition and probably associated with exposure to anthropogenic stressors and overall food scarcity. Because persistent high GC levels can be detrimental to health and fitness, populations living in disturbed unprotected areas may not be viable in the long-term.     

Use of remote sensing to produce a habitat map of Norfolk

Information on the extent, location and condition of semi-natural habitats is essential to deliver the national targets to achieve the UK commitment to Biodiversity 2020 (Defra, 2011). This strategy aims to halt overall biodiversity loss by 2020 and move towards a position of net gain. In order to achieve this, both local and national bodies need detailed information on the habitats present over their entire area.Remote sensing provides opportunities for cost-effective, rapid and repeatable habitat mapping. This paper presents a method used to produce a seamless habitat map of the county of Norfolk, UK, of sufficient detail to inform land management decisions. Key aspects of the method were the development of parallel classification systems using different input data combinations and a long-term, volunteer-based map validation and update procedure.The habitat classification method utilised multiple earth observation platforms characterised by differences in spatial resolution, spectral range and season of image capture. The combinations of image data used were very important for the success of the analyses. The classification process was guided by ecological principles and local knowledge, along with targeted ground-truthing to guide class associations, confirm underlying ecological processes and to assess accuracy, and map revision.The study found that automated methods of analysis were most effective when classifying habitats characterised by distinctive dominant cover species, or groups of dominant species. The methods were least effective at identifying habitats defined by the presence of low growth-form species at low frequency or where they form understorey vegetation; in such cases field checking is vital to confirm the habitat class assignment.This scale of mapping can be used in combination with targeted, sustainable field survey effort to provide the level of information needed by decision makers to support Biodviersity 2020 targets and a wide range of other policy needs. The map has already been adopted by a wide range of organisations and finding application in such areas as Green Infrastructure, Living Landscape and habitat suitability modelling.     

基于目标物种栖息地适宜性和景观特征的保护地功能区划研究——以甘肃多儿国家级自然保护区为例

生境的破碎化是导致物种濒危的主要原因之一,功能区划是对保护地进行空间布局和提升保护成效的重要手段。通过对生境进行适宜性评价,进而指导合理区划,是提升保护地功能的重要措施。基于目前保护地功能区划中存在与目标物种适宜栖息地空间格局不一致、与周边联系紧密性不足、边缘效应明显等问题,以甘肃多儿国家级大熊猫(Ailuropoda melanoleuca)自然保护区为例,根据现有保护地区划景观特征,通过扩大研究尺度和开展栖息地适宜性评价,结合适宜栖息地异质性和功能区的景观特征,基于提升适宜栖息地完整性和连接度调整保护区功能区划,并通过比较区划前、后景观特征和栖息地适宜性的变化以及大熊猫的空间利用来评估本研究方法的有效性。研究表明：基于本方法的新区划核心区适宜栖息地增加了16.03%,被保护的优质栖息地增加,核心区内缘比由调整前的5.35和6.32下降至3.97,被保护的优质栖息地增加,边缘效应明显减小,提高了保护区适宜栖息地的完整性,加强了和周边优质栖息地的联系,有助于提升核心区的环境容纳量,增强抵御外来干扰的能力,改善大熊猫的生存状况,促进所在区域的种群交流。     

Wildlife habitat analysis – a multidimensional habitat management model

In intensively cultivated landscapes, the effects of land use – changing habitat quality and habitat availability - on wildlife populations are of major importance for wildlife management. Populations of some species reach high densities, grow rapidly, and can therefore cause damage to tree regeneration in forests; chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) is an example. Other species, like capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), suffer from substantial habitat loss resulting in a population decline. Consequently, the number of individuals and the quality of habitat are of crucial relevance for the development of wildlife management concepts. It is critical to know, which areas provide suitable habitat conditions for a species, and what quantity and quality of habitat is required to achieve a certain population size.

In order to evaluate habitat quality and to link wildlife research to practical habitat management, an integrated habitat management model has been designed. The model is based on a multi-dimensional habitat analysis which employs different methodological levels, which were defined according to different spatial scales. On a country scale (level 1), the wildlife ecological landscape type (WELT) is introduced. For this study the federal state of Baden-Wuerttemberg is divided into units which represent distinct regions with similar landscape ecological habitat conditions for wildlife species. On an eco-regional scale (level 2), the landscape ecological habitat potential (LEHP) was developed. It is based on the evaluation of species-related landscape parameters within an exemplary eco-region and provides information about the potential habitat available to a population. On two local scales (level 3: forest district, level 4: forest stand), a habitat structure analysis was conducted, which serves as a foundation for habitat improvement and the monitoring of habitat conditions. The three methodological elements WELT, LEHP and habitat structure analysis were integrated into a habitat management model. The model uses chamois and capercaillie as examples, but can be equally applied to other species and wildlife management regimes.