A review and a framework for the integration of biodiversity monitoring at the habitat level

The monitoring of biodiversity at the level of habitats is becoming widespread in Europe and elsewhere as countries establish national habitat monitoring systems and various organisations initiate regional and local schemes. Parallel to this growth, it is increasingly important to address biodiversity changes on large spatial (e.g. continental) and temporal (e.g. decade-long) scales, which requires the integration of currently ongoing monitoring efforts. Here we review habitat monitoring and develop a framework for integrating data or activities across habitat monitoring schemes. We first identify three basic properties of monitoring activities: spatial aspect (explicitly spatial vs. non-spatial), documentation of spatial variation (field mapping vs. remote sensing) and coverage of habitats (all habitats or specific habitats in an area), and six classes of monitoring schemes based on these properties. Then we explore tasks essential for integrating schemes both within and across the major classes. Finally, we evaluate the need and potential for integration of currently existing schemes by drawing on data collected on European habitat monitoring in the EuMon project. Our results suggest a dire need for integration if we are to measure biodiversity changes across large spatial and temporal scales regarding the 2010 target and beyond. We also make recommendations for an integrated pan-European habitat monitoring scheme. Such a scheme should be based on remote sensing to record changes in land cover and habitat types over large scales, with complementary field mapping using unified methodology to provide ground truthing and to monitor small-scale changes, at least in habitat types of conservation importance.     

Habitat monitoring in Europe: a description of current practices

Monitoring of biodiversity at the level of habitats is becoming increasingly common. Here we describe current practices in habitat monitoring based on 150 schemes in Europe. Most schemes were initiated after 1990 in response to EU nature directives or habitat management/restoration actions, with funding mostly from European or national sources. Schemes usually monitor both the spatial distribution and the quality of the habitats, and they frequently collect data on environmental parameters and potential causes of changes. Many schemes are local or regional rather than national or international in scope, and sampling effort varies greatly across spatial and temporal scales. Experimental design is used in half of the schemes, however, data are rarely analysed by advanced statistics. Most schemes require two months or less per year in manpower and are typically run by professionals rather than by volunteers. Estimated salaries plus equipment costs average 650,000 Euro per year per scheme, and add up to 80 million Euros annually. Costs are particularly high for schemes based on European or international law and for schemes funded by European or national sources. Costs are also high in schemes in which sampling sites are selected subjectively rather than based on sampling theory, and in schemes that do not use field mapping or remote sensing to document spatial variation in habitats. Our survey demonstrates promising developments in European habitat monitoring but also underlines the need for better spatial coverage, documentation of spatial variaton, improved sampling design and advanced data analysis. Such improvements are essential if we are to judge progress towards the 2010 biodiversity targets.     

The coincidence of people and biodiversity in Europe

A positive correlation between human population density and species richness has been recorded across the tropics. Here I investigate whether this correlation holds true for Europe. Analyses reveal a positive correlation between human population density and plant (rho = 0.505), mammal (rho = 0.471) and reptile and amphibian (rho = 0.556) species richness. The results are largely concordant with those obtained in similar studies for Africa. However, contrary to previous analyses, the correlation found between people and breeding bird species richness (rho = 0.186) was weak. Of three measures of endemism used, only combined European endemic species richness correlated with human density (rho = 0.437). Richness among combined restricted‐range European endemics was not correlated (rho = 0.095) with human density, while richness among all combined restricted‐range species was only weakly correlated with human density (rho = 0.167). The results partially support the idea of a correlation between people and biodiversity, although there are some important exceptions. Discussion of possible mechanisms underling the observed patterns is undertaken.     

Species prioritization for monitoring and management in regional multiple species conservation plans

Successful conservation plans are not solely achieved by acquiring optimally designed reserves. Ongoing monitoring and management of the biodiversity in those reserves is an equally important, but often neglected or poorly executed, part of the conservation process. In this paper we address one of the first and most important steps in designing a monitoring program – deciding what to monitor. We present a strategy for prioritizing species for monitoring and management in multispecies conservation plans. We use existing assessments of threatened status, and the degree and spatial and temporal extent of known threats to link the prioritization of species to the overarching goals and objectives of the conservation plan. We consider both broad and localized spatial scales to capture the regional conservation context and the practicalities of local management and monitoring constraints. Spatial scales that are commensurate with available data are selected. We demonstrate the utility of this strategy through application to a set of 85 plants and animals in an established multispecies conservation plan in San Diego County, California, USA. We use the prioritization to identify the most prominent risk factors and the habitats associated with the most threats to species. The protocol highlighted priorities that had not previously been identified and were not necessarily intuitive without systematic application of the criteria; many high‐priority species have received no monitoring attention to date, and lower‐priority species have. We recommend that in the absence of clear focal species, monitoring threats in highly impacted habitats may be a way to circumvent the need to monitor all the targeted species.     

Modelling spatial patterns of biodiversity for conservation prioritization in North-eastern Mexico

Relationships between spatial patterns of bird and mammal species richness in north‐eastern Mexico were analysed in relation to the location of three biosphere reserves (El Abra‐Tanchipa, El Cielo, and Sierra Gorda) and 13 priority areas recently identified for conservation. Ecological niches were modelled and potential distributions delimited for 285 bird and 114 mammal species using a genetic algorithm based on locality information from museum specimens and 15 selected environmental attributes. Potential distributions were transformed into hypothesized current distributions based on species–habitat associations as reflected in a recent land‐use map. Although species richness was lower when distributions were reduced from potential to current, spatial patterns of potential and current richness were similar. Heuristic, complementarity‐based prioritization procedures were used to identify combinations of areas and sites with maximal species representation: the biosphere reserves included 79% of birds and 74% of mammal species; eight priority areas provided an additional 11% of birds and 13% of mammals; the remaining 10% of birds and 13% of mammals were concentrated in new sites across the study area.     

The alien flora of Europe: a taxonomic and biogeographic review

Abstract. A geographic and taxonomic overview of the non-indigenous plant species of Europe, based on the ‘Flora Europaea’ is given. The flora of Europe includes 1568 species which have either expanded their ranges within Europe under human influence (naturalized European species) or are of non-European origin (exotic species). The latter group consists of 580 species (37%) which form a diverse group in terms of their taxonomic composition and geographic origin. The exotics are represented by 113 families, of which the Compositae, Rosaceae and Gramineae are most important. The ratio of species to families is low. Most exotic species in Europe originate from the Americas and Asia. Countries of southern Europe have a higher relative number of exotics in their non-native flora than northern ones. The species-range size distribution differs between naturalized European and exotic species; the latter are on average more widespread than the naturalized.     

Effects of budget constraints on conservation network design for biodiversity and ecosystem services

Limited budgets and budget cuts hamper the development of effective biodiversity conservation networks. Optimizing the spatial configuration of conservation networks given such budget constraints remains challenging. Systematic conservation planning addresses this challenge. Systematic conservation planning can integrate both biodiversity and ecosystem services as conservation targets, and hence address the challenge to operationalize ecosystem services as an anthropocentric argument for conservation. We create two conservation scenarios to expand the current conservation network in the Dutch province of Limburg. One scenario focuses on biodiversity only and the other integrates biodiversity and ecosystem services. We varied conservation budgets in these scenarios and used the software Marxan to assess differences in the resulting network configurations. In addition, we tested the network’s cost-effectiveness by allocating a conservation budget either in one or in multiple steps. We included twenty-nine biodiversity surrogates and five ecosystem services. The inclusion of ecosystem services to expand Limburg’s conservation network only moderately changed prioritized areas, compared to only conserving biodiversity. Network expansion in a single time-step is more efficient in terms of compactness and cost-effectiveness than implementing it in multiple time-steps. Therefore, to cost-effectively plan conservation networks, the full budget should ideally be available before the plans are implemented. We show that including ecosystem services to cost-effectively expand conservation networks can simultaneously encourage biodiversity conservation and stimulate the protection of conservation-compatible ecosystem services.     

城市公园和郊区公园生物多样性评估的指标

随着城市化进程的加快,城市的生物多样性不可避免地受到城市化的各种影响,城市及其郊区的生物多样性保护越来越受到人们的重视。城市公园与郊区公园中往往具有高度多样化的生境,并保存着某些自然植被片段和动物物种,那里的生物多样性较高。可见,在城市和郊区的生物多样性保护中,公园生物多样性的保护是一个非常关键的环节,而对其生物多样性的评估又是有效保护的基础。目前,我国生物多样性评估方面的研究工作多集中于物种水平,而对生境的研究较少,但实践证明,保护生境比保护物种更为重要。本文介绍了比利时学者Hermy & Cornelis在比利时西佛兰德省的Loppem市立公园的保护实践中构建的一种对城市公园和郊区公园中的生物多样性进行评估的方法。该方法从两个方面展开：生境多样性和物种多样性。在生境水平上,首先对各种生境单元进行分类,这些单元被分为面状、线状和点状要素。针对每种要素,分别计算了Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和饱和度指数。饱和度指数是实际的多样性指数与最大可能的多样性指数之比。在物种水平上,使用了物种数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和饱和度指数来评估公园中的高等植物、蝴蝶、两栖动物和饲养的鸟类等物种。这样,就获得了20个生物多样性指标,根据这些指数就可以对Loppem市立公园内的生物多样性进行评估。结合我国生物多样性评估工作的实际要求,文章最后对上述方法进行了讨论,指出该方法对我国公园的生物多样性评估工作具有借鉴意义,但在运用时各地需要结合本地的实际情况。     

Considerable qualitative variability in local-level biodiversity surveys in Finland: A challenge for biodiversity offsetting

High-quality biodiversity monitoring is crucial in the era of rapid global biodiversity loss and for the evaluation of conservation outcomes at different spatial scales. Biodiversity offsets are conservation actions that aim to an outcome of no net loss of biodiversity by compensating for the negative impacts from development projects. Successful use of offsets requires that the biodiversity gains and losses between offset and development areas are adequately and comparably measured. Numerous local-level biodiversity surveys are conducted to estimate the biodiversity values of potential development areas in Finland every year. These surveys are done for local planning purposes, and their results are almost never published. We studied Finnish biodiversity surveys to assess their adequacy with regards to biodiversity offsetting. Our data included all biodiversity surveys (n = 206) documented in the region of Southwest Finland during the time period of 1997–2014. We analysed the surveys based on Finnish nature legislation and biodiversity related criteria gathered from other offset and conservation programs. We found the surveys to be inadequate in their assessment of nature values and spatial considerations for offset purposes. We used cluster analysis to study the differences between surveys based on the inventoried nature values and found surveys were clustered into 3 different groups. The characteristics of surveys also varied between individual surveyors. Our results show that the current execution of biodiversity surveys is not compatible enough with the quality of surveys needed for biodiversity offsets. Surveys must be standardized to ensure their comparability and sufficient measurement of biodiversity with ecologically and geographically important features.     

Butterfly monitoring in Europe: methods,applications and perspectives

Since the first Butterfly Monitoring Scheme in the UK started in the mid-1970s, butterfly monitoring in Europe has developed in more than ten European countries. These schemes are aimed to assess regional and national trends in butterfly abundance per species. We discuss strengths and weaknesses of methods used in these schemes and give examples of applications of the data. A new development is to establish supra-national trends per species and multispecies indicators. Such indicators enable to report against the target to halt biodiversity loss by 2010. Our preliminary European Grassland Butterfly Indicator shows a decline of 50% between 1990 and 2005. We expect to develop a Grassland Butterfly Indicator with an improved coverage across European countries. We see also good perspectives to develop a supra-national indicator for climate change as well as an indicator for woodland butterflies.     

Reliable,verifiable and efficient monitoring of biodiversity via metabarcoding

To manage and conserve biodiversity, one must know what is being lost, where, and why, as well as which remedies are likely to be most effective. Metabarcoding technology can characterise the species compositions of mass samples of eukaryotes or of environmental DNA. Here, we validate metabarcoding by testing it against three high‐quality standard data sets that were collected in Malaysia (tropical), China (subtropical) and the United Kingdom (temperate) and that comprised 55,813 arthropod and bird specimens identified to species level with the expenditure of 2,505 person‐hours of taxonomic expertise. The metabarcode and standard data sets exhibit statistically correlated alpha‐ and beta‐diversities, and the two data sets produce similar policy conclusions for two conservation applications: restoration ecology and systematic conservation planning. Compared with standard biodiversity data sets, metabarcoded samples are taxonomically more comprehensive, many times quicker to produce, less reliant on taxonomic expertise and auditable by third parties, which is essential for dispute resolution.     

Endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest: traits,conservation status,and patterns of biodiversity

The bird fauna of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest is exceptionally diverse and threatened, with high levels of endemism. Available lists of the endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest were generated before recent taxonomic revisions lumped or split species and before the recent increase in species occurrence records. Our objective, therefore, was to compile a new list of the endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest, characterize these species in terms of conservation status and natural history traits, and map remaining vegetation and protected areas. We combined GIS analysis with a literature search to compile a list of endemic species and, based on the phylogeny and distribution of these species, characterized areas in terms of species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and endemism. We identified 223 species of birds endemic to the Atlantic Forest, including 12 species not included in previous lists. In addition, 14 species included in previous lists were not considered endemic, either because they occur outside the Atlantic Forest biome or because they are not considered valid species. The typical Atlantic Forest endemic bird is a small forest‐dependent invertivore. Of the species on our list, 31% are considered threatened or extinct. Only ~ 34% of the spatial analysis units had > 10% forest cover, and protected area coverage was consistently low (< 1%). In addition, we found spatial incongruity among the different measures of biodiversity (species richness, relative phylogenetic diversity, restricted‐range species, and irreplaceability). Each of these measures provides information concerning different aspects of biological diversity. However, regardless of which aspect(s) of biodiversity might be considered most important, preservation of the remaining areas of remnant vegetation and further expansion of protected areas are essential if we are to conserve the many endemic species of birds in the Atlantic Forest.     

Cultivation of genetically modified organisms: resource needs for monitoring adverse effects on biodiversity

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) in non-European countries are introduced into the agro-environment on large scale with little knowledge of adverse effects on biodiversity. In the European Union (EU) possible effects of GMOs on biodiversity have to be accurately and precisely monitored. Monitoring biodiversity with a high precision is expensive and may only be achieved in close cooperation between GMO monitoring and general biodiversity monitoring. The EuMon project sampled metadata on biodiversity monitoring in Europe. Basing on the metadata, we estimated resource needs for biodiversity monitoring as needed for detecting potential adverse effects of GMOs on biodiversity. On average the analyzed schemes with a potential to detect at least a 5% change of biodiversity monitor 242.6 ± 105.4 sites at 322.6 ± 172.1 person days employing 63 ± 23 persons per year. The time invested in monitoring, given as person days, however, differed greatly between schemes and species groups, so that real manpower might be considerably higher.     

Characteristics of Australia's rangelands and key design issues for monitoring biodiversity

Abstract We explored the key issues that are most likely to influence any set of guiding principles for developing biodiversity monitoring programmes in Australia's rangelands. We defined the Australian rangelands and came up with an overview of their climate extremes, land‐use pressures and biodiversity loss, and then focussed on issues underpinning the design phase of any monitoring programme. Using Noss's 1990 framework of compositional, structural and functional attributes of biodiversity and its new revisions by others, we showed how the elusive, abstract concept of biodiversity can be used to identify many measurable attributes that can form a minimum and necessary set of indicators for any biodiversity monitoring task. We then described the steps in the monitoring process, with a particular focus on the reasons for monitoring biodiversity as they strongly influence the selection of indicators. We concluded by compiling a table of key issues as background information for developing guiding principles (Table 4). The list is by no means an exhaustive list for the design phase but it does indicate that considerable attention needs to be given to this phase when developing monitoring programmes. We have intentionally not addressed the equally important issues associated with the planning and delivery phases of developing a monitoring programme, as Wallace et al. and Watson and Novelly cover these in their papers in the present issue of Austral Ecology.     

Searching for heat in a marine biodiversity hotspot

Coral reefs exhibit highly congruent patterns of biodiversity, with a prominent hotspot in the Indo-Australian Archipelago (IAA). Unlike many terrestrial systems, the IAA hotspot exhibits extensive latitudinal and longitudinal biodiversity gradients. Conflicting hypotheses have highlighted the importance of the area as a centre of origin, overlap or accumulation, with the location of endemics being used as the primary criterion for testing these hypotheses, by identifying the presumed geographical origins of species. We evaluate the utility of marine endemics for resolving these hypotheses, and examine recent molecular phylogenetic evidence for coral reef species that has revealed the antiquity of the endemics and the other species that make up this hotspot. These analyses emphasize the importance of the IAA in the survival rather than the origins of species.     

Dialectical relations between professionals and volunteers in a biodiversity monitoring organisation

The paper presents a case study of the changes in organisational culture of volunteer biodiversity monitoring organisations and is based on ethnographic research of Bird Watching and Bird Study Association of Slovenia (DOPPS). In the authors’ opinion, the dynamics of organisation’s culture is influenced by the emerging opposition between professionalism on one side and voluntarism on the other. It is explained that professionalism, though being a necessary developmental stage, may have a negative impact on voluntarism and may result in the reduction of the initial altruistic sentiments among members and hence decrease their willingness to participate. On the other hand, if an organisation depends entirely on volunteers, it may not survive and flourish in a changing socio-political environment. The paper is intended to provide a feasible solution for successful development of similar organisations facing constantly changing settings by erasing boundaries between categories of volunteers and professionals, which mitigates the dialectic processes.

The sinking ark: pollution and the worldwide loss of biodiversity

Humans are making increasing demands on natural ecosystems. One recent study has concluded that our species is consuming or diverting some 40% of the net photosynthetic productivity of our planet. Many habitats are being converted to simpler systems which provide more harvestable goods to people. As a result, genetic diversity, species and whole ecosystems are disappearing; some scientists suggest that as many as 25% of the world's species could be lost in the next several decades.The sinking ark is usually characterized in terms of pollution, habitat loss, poaching, introduced species and illegal trade in wildlife products, but these are symptoms rather than causes. At a more fundamental level, many of the same factors which have enabled pollution to become such a problem have also been responsible for the loss in biodiversity; the most important factor is that the effects of pollutants on biodiversity have been considered an externality, an unintended side effect of industrial activity which brought measurable benefits to people. Development activities which have depleted biodiversity have proven profitable only because the real costs have been hidden.Keeping the ark afloat will require the Five-I Approach: investigation (learning how natural systems function); information (ensuring that the facts are available to inform decisions); incentives (using economic tools to help conserve biodiversity); integration (promoting a cross-sectoral approach to conserving biodiversity); and international support (building productive collaboration for conserving biodiversity).     

人类活动影响下的生物多样性保护:中欧的植被演化及其启示

对历史时期欧洲中部地区植被历史的研究表明,人类活动不仅破坏了自然、导致植被的单一化,同时也对植被与景观的丰富度(多样性)产生影响。人类或家畜的干预使得一些半自然、高多样性的生境类型及相应的植被类型得以保持和发展;但过度的干扰势必造成植被的单一化和贫乏化,威胁生物多样性的保存和保护。当今的中欧植被格局总体上是近几个世纪,某些地区甚至是上千年来,人为干扰叠加在气候变化影响之上的综合产物。中欧大部分地区的潜在植被多为森林,如果没有人为活动的强烈影响,除了岩石、水体、海滩、林线以上的高山以及高位沼泽等特定生境的分布区域以外,当今中欧的大部分地区应当仍覆盖着郁闭的阔叶林,而不会表现出今天的多样性景观。因此,自然保护的对象不应当仅仅是纯自然植被,保护手段也不仅仅是清除人为干扰。在保护多样性思想的指导下,各种典型植被类型都是值得保护的,除了高自然度的自然生态系统外,栽培植被也应当被保存和保护,否则,它们会随着特定耕作或管理方式的消失而消失。同时,既应保护当前植被,也要恢复潜在植被,使目前多样的景观类型、植被类型和栖息地类型得以维持和发展。本文结论为解决当前欧洲自然保护中的争议性问题提供了依据,也可以为中国的生物多样性保护战...     

Predicting risk of invasion in a Mediterranean island using niche modelling and valuable biota

Invasion by alien species is nowadays considered as one of the major threats to biodiversity. Thus, the identification of the areas exposed to a greater risk of invasion represents a priority for management purpose, especially in presence of habitats worthy of conservation. This paper aims to propose a method to produce a map of risk of invasion, merging together the threat of invasion by invasive plants and the distribution of habitats with high conservation value, on the case study of the Island of Elba (Tuscan Archipelago). We modelled the potential distribution of six particularly harmful invasive plants and merged these distributions into a map of threat of invasion. This map was overlapped to the map of density of Natura2000 habitats, finally obtaining a map of risk of invasion. According to our analyses, the potential distribution of the invasive species resulted highly influenced by human-related factors. The habitats more at risk are those closer to streets and anthropic habitats, which are more likely to be colonized by the invasive species we studied. We identified some rare habitats which are strongly endangered, highlighting that around 20% of the surface of the Island is exposed to some level of risk of invasion.