Phospholipase activity in Cryptococcus neoformans

Phospholipases have only been detected in a few fungi and yeasts, in particular in Candida albicans. Secreted phospholipases are considered by some researchers to be a potential factor of virulence and pathogenicity in C. albicans. Twenty-three Cryptococcus neoformans strains were tested in order to observe phospholipase production. Twenty-two of the 23 strains tested were able to produce phospholipases, and the ratio diameter of the colony to total diameter of the colony plus zone of precipitation (Pz) ranged between 0.271 and 0.949. C. neoformans, just like C. albicans, can be divided on the basis of the Pz into different strains according to their virulence and pathogenicity. There also appeared to be a correlation between the phospholipase production and the size of the capsule in the strains isolated from AIDS patients. For this reason, further studies on C. neoformans phospholipase activity would be useful in evaluating the virulence of different strains.     

A rapid urease test for presumptive identification of Cryptococcus neoformans

A rapid method to evidence urease activity is described. Urea hydrolysis and consequent production ammonia are detected by a chemical reaction producing a blue phenol compound (indophenol blue). Three hundred and three yeast were tested. Out of 107 urease-positive organisms detected by Christensen's Urea Agar Test (CUAT) 102 were positive by our method. No false negatives were observed by this method when testing 87 Cryptococcus strains. Ths practical screening test for presumptive identification of Cryptococcus neoformans is simple, unaffected by pH changes and requires 15 minutes to be performed.     

Comparative analysis of Cryptococcus neoformans acid-resistant particles generated from pigmented cells grown in different laccase substrates

Cryptococcus neoformans produces pigments in vitro in the presence of exogenous substrate. We characterized acid-resistant particles isolated from pigmented cells grown in L-dopa, methyl-dopa, (-)-epinephrine or (-)-norepinephrine. The goals of this study were to determine whether pigments made from each of these substrates were melanins and the consequences of pigmentation on related cell characteristics. The greatest yield of acid-resistant particles occurred with methyl-dopa followed by L-dopa. Electron microscopy indicated that L-dopa and methyl-dopa produced particles with thicker shells. The mAb 6D2 reacted with all particles, but a lower reactivity was observed with epinephrine-derived particles. ESR analysis revealed that epinephrine-derived particles failed to produce a stable free radical signal typical of melanins. Growth of C. neoformans in different substrates affected cell and capsule size but not capsule induction. Hence, the type of pigment produced by C. neoformans is dependent on the substrate and not all pigments meet the criteria for melanins.     

Melanization decreases the susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to enzymatic degradation

Cryptococcus neoformans is a free-living fungus that is primarily found in soils contaminated with avian excreta. Recent studies have shown that C. neoformans can synthesize melanins or melanin-like compounds in avian excreta. Melanization has been associated with protection of C. neoformans against harsh environmental conditions, such as ultraviolet radiation and extremes of temperature. In this study we examined whether melanization can protect C. neoformans against enzymatic degradation. Our results demonstrated that in vitro melanization decreases the susceptibility of C. neoformans to hydrolytic enzymes. This suggests a role for melanin in protection of C. neoformans against enzymatic degradation by antagonistic microbes in the environment. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Efficacy of voriconazole in experimental Cryptococcus neoformans infection

Voriconazole is a third generation triazole with improved activity against many fungal pathogens. We examined the efficacy of voriconazole in a murine infection model and evaluated the drug’s effect on cellular characteristics and serum polysaccharide levels. The antifungal reduced serum polysaccharide and significantly prolonged the survival of lethally infected animals.     

Expression of capsule-associated genes of Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans produces an extracellular polysaccharide capsule that is related to its virulence. The production of capsular components was reported to be accelerated when cultured on media with lower amount of glucose. In this study, relationship between capsule synthesis and expression of capsule-associated genes (CAP genes) was investigated by quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Normally encapsulated strains and a stable acapsular strain were cultured in 1% polypepton medium with 0.1% or 15% glucose. The results of assessment of the capsule size showed that the capsule of yeast cells cultured in the medium with low amount of glucose was thicker than that with high amount of glucose. The CAP gene expressions of normally encapsulated strains were higher in the medium with 0.1% glucose than in the medium with 15% glucose. Furthermore, CAP10, CAP59 and CAP60 genes were expressed very low in a stable acapsular strain, and CAP64 gene was not expressed. Results of assessment of capsule size and CAP gene expressions by quantitative real-time PCR analysis indicated that CAP gene expressions might be related to the production of capsule, and that glucose concentration in culture media might be related to the expression of CAP genes.     

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii Isolated from the Excreta of Psittaciformes in a Southern Brazilian Zoological Garden

Cryptococcus neoformans, a major pathogen in immunocompromised patients, is a ubiquitous free-living fungus that can be isolated from soils, avian excreta and plant material. To further study potential saprophytic sources of this yeast in the Southern Brazilian State Rio Grande do Sul, we analyzed fecal samples from 59 species of captive birds kept in cages at a local Zoological Garden, belonging to 12 different orders. Thirty-eight environmental isolates of C. neoformans were obtained only from Psittaciformes (Psittacidae, Cacatuidae and Psittacula). Their variety and serotype were determined, and the genetic structure of the isolates was analyzed by use of the simple repetitive microsatellite specific primer M13 and the minisatellite specific primer (GACA)₄ as single primers in the PCR. The varieties were confirmed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Thirty-three isolates (87%) were from the var. grubii, serotype A, molecular type VNI and five (13%) were Cryptococcus gattii, serotype B, molecular type VGI. All the isolates were mating type α. Isolates were screened for some potential virulence factors. Quantitative urease production by the environmental isolates belonging to the C. gattii was similar to the values usually obtained for clinical ones.     

Microreview: Capsule-associated genes of Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcosis, caused by Cryptococcus neoformans is a common systemic mycosis in man and animals, particularly immunocompromised patients. This pathogenic fungus produces a thick extracellular polysaccharide capsule. Four capsule-associated genes (CAP10, CAP59, CAP60, CAP64) were cloned and sequenced, and proved to be essential for capsule synthesis. However biochemical functions of CAP gene products have not been clarified yet. Recently, the relatedness of the polysaccharide capsule and four capsule-associated genes has partly been elucidated. Nucleotide sequence of four CAP gene fragments was analyzed for phylogenetic relationships, and they were in agreement with the conventional classification of varieties and serotypes within C. neoformans. Expression of four CAP genes and capsule size were examined using two media containing different amount of glucose, and the results indicated that CAP genes might play important roles in elaboration of extracellular polysaccharide capsule. Furthermore, analyses of CAP genes in various clinical samples would give the useful information to diagnose cryptococcosis in human and animals.     

Growth of Cryptococcus neoformans in a thiamine-free medium

The growth of Cryptococcus neoformans in a minimal liquid synthetic medium with or without thiamine (10 g/ml) was investigated. In these media the presence or absence of thiamine had no effect on the development of C. neoformans. To check these results, we performed a series of experiments on a solid form of the minimal synthetic medium. In this study a series of six serial transfers were carried out to starve the cells of nutrients that may have been carried over from their growth on rich media. In each of the transfers on the solid synthetic medium, C. neoformans showed a similar and scarce growth. This finding indicates that C. neoformans could be autotrophic in respect to thiamine.     

Clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans in Bangkok (Thailand)

Cryptococcus neoformans was isolated from 13 patients (7 females and 6 males) suffering from systemic cryptococcosis. Eight patients were suffering from central nervous system cryptococcosis and 5 were suffering from disseminated cryptococcosis. Systemic lupus erythematosus was found to be the common underlying disease in 3 patients. The results of treatment depended on the underlying diseases (7 improved, 6 died). Also, 13 isolates of C. neoformans were obtained from feces of 30 pet birds. All 26 isolates of C. neoformans were cultured in glycine cycloheximide medium and were found to be of serotypes A and D.     

Cryptococcus neoformans in bird excreta in the city zoo of Cali,Colombia

The presence of Cryptococcus neoformans was studied in bird excreta and in the air circulating in and around bird cages in the City Zoo of Cali, Colombia, between August 1994 and April 1995, using a sunflower seed agar culture medium for fungus isolation. A total of 380 samples was studied, 110 from droppings and 270 from Petri dishes placed inside(148) and outside (122) the cages. C. neoformansvar neoformans was found in only two cases, one from bird excreta (0.9%) and the other from air inside a cage (0.7%). The former positive sample was collected from the cracks of a dead tree where two crested caracaras (Polyborusplancus) roosted; the feces were dry, accumulated,and with a pH of 6. The other positive sample was found inside the cage of these birds; however, samples taken in a dispersion study at 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 m around this cage were all negative. It appears that this low isolation rate is due to adequate cleaning and disinfection procedures used in the city zoo of Cali.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Serotypes of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from patients prior to and during the AIDS era in Thailand

One hundred and eighty-seven strains of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from patients in Thailand were charcterized by biochemical varieties relating to serogroups. Canavanine-glycine-bromothymol blue (CGB) agar was used for differentiating the varieties of C. neoformans. Slide agglutination tests were performed with Crypto Check (Iatron, Inc., Tokyo) to determine their serotypes. Fifty-five percent (10 out of 18) of the pre-AIDS isolates were serotype B, 28% were serotype A, 5% were serotype D, and an unexpected 11% (2 out of 18) were serotype C. These are the first to be recorded in Asia. In contrast, among the 169 clinical isolates obtained between January 1993 and March 1995 (AIDS epidemic), serotype A was outstandingly predominant-93% (157 out of 169), serotype B was relatively low (3.6%) and both serotypes D and AD were 1.8%. The pattern of serotypes of the 59 isolates from known HIV-positive patients was closely similar to the total isolates during the AIDS epidemic. In determining the varieties of C. neoformans by CGB, only 1 of the 187 isolates gave a false reaction. On the basis of our findings, we believe that in the pre-AIDS era either C. neoformans var. gattii serorype B or serotype C were the common causative agents of cryptococcosis in Thailand. The advent of AIDS changed the pattern of serotypes with serotype A becoming predominant as has been reported world wide.     

Serotype and PCR-fingerprints of Clinical and Environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans in Chiang Mai,Thailand

From May 1999 to April 2000, serotypes of clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans were studied in Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand. Three hundred and eighty-five environmental samples, of which 100 were dove droppings, 55 pigeon droppings and 230 eucalyptus flower, were collected from 7 Amphoes in Chiang Mai. C. neoformans was isolated from 45 of 100 (45.0%) dove dropping samples, 9 of 55 (16.4%) pigeon dropping samples and 2 of 230 (0.9%) eucalyptus flower samples. Serotypes of 56 environmental isolates and 75 clinical isolates of C. neoformans,obtained during the same period, were determined by the slide agglutination test. Fifty-six environmental and 74 clinical isolates belonged to C. neoformans serotype A (C. neoformans var. grubii), and only one clinical isolate belonged to C. neoformans serotype AD. The isolation of C. neoformans var. grubii from eucalyptus flower samples suggests contamination of avian droppings. PCR-fingerprinting, using (GACA)4 as a primer, discriminated 131 clinical and environmental isolates into 2 groups (group I and II). Seventy-five clinical and 54 environmental isolates were of group I, which had two major specific bands of approximately 1,250 and 960 base pairs. Two environmental isolates, one from pigeon excreta and the other from a eucalyptus flower sample were of group II, which had two major specific bands of approximately 1,180 and 500 base pairs.     

Persistence of infection in mice inoculated intranasally with Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans was instilled intranasally into mice which were periodically sacrificed to determine the course of infection. Cryptococci persisted within the nasal passages throughout the 90 day study. Extranasal dissemination began 14–28 days after instillation and was still demonstrable 90 days post-exposure. Ten percent mortality was observed in mice receiving 10⁶ cryptococci, while no mortality was observed in mice exposed to 10³ or 10⁴ cryptococci. Our research suggests that nasal colonization with C. neoformans can precede pulmonary and systemic cryptococcosis by weeks or months.     

Isolation of saprophytic Cryptococcus neoformans from Puerto Rico: Distribution and variety

Until the present decade, no studies had been conducted in Puerto Rico on the saprophytic distribution and variety of Cryptococcus neoformans. Samples (522) of pigeon droppings from 14 western towns were tested for the presence of C. neoformans. The yeast was recovered from 24.7% (129 isolates) of the samples, representing 10 of the 14 towns studied. All environmental isolates were identified as C. neoformans var. neoformans using canavanine-glycine-bromthymol blue (CGB) agar. The yeast was isolated from 79.4% of the samples in one town, Isabela. The average number of yeast cells isolated from sites within this municipality was 5.1×10⁵ per gram of pigeon droppings. This was 2.6 times the average number of yeast cells of C. neoformans isolated from sites in other towns. In addition, the yeast was isolated from four patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), each of whom died of cryptococcal meningitis. Each of these poorly encapsulated isolates was identified as C. neoformans var. neoformans using CGB agar. The results of this investigation demonstrate that C. neoformans var. neoformans is prevalent in Puerto Rico.This paper was presented in part at the X^th Congress of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology, Barcelona, Spain from June 27 to July 1, 1988.     

Cryptococcus neoformans varieties from material under the canopies of eucalyptus trees and pigeon dropping samples from four major cities in Jordan

To our best knowledge, any study related to the ecological distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans in Jordan does not exist in the medical literature. In order to determine the environmental occurrence of both varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans in Jordan, pigeon droppings and material under the canopies of eucalyptus trees were collected from four major cities of this country. For the isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans variety gattii from environmental sources, 500 samples of the mixed soil debris, including tree materials, under the eucalyptus trees from cities of Amman, Irbid, Jerash, and Ajlun were collected. Also, 509 samples of pigeon droppings were collected from the same cities for the isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans variety neoformans. After inoculating the samples onto modified Staib agar medium in Petri dishes, a total of 336 melanoid yeast colonies were picked up during screening process. At the end of serial mycological studies, none of these isolates was identified as Cryptococcus neoformans, but all were Cryptococcus species other than C. neoformans. For determining the exact status, more extensive environmental studies need to be done in the future.     

Electron microscopic cytochemical analysis of hepatic granuloma induced by Cryptococcus neoformans

The hepatic granulomas in experimental cryptococcosis were analyzed by peroxidase (PO) cytochemistry. Cryptococcus neoformans was inoculated intravenously into rats (group A), and some rats were administrated with dextran sulphate to suppress Kupffer cell functions before inoculation (group B). All rats were sacrificed 7 days after inoculation. The livers were examined PO cytochemically. In addition, the liver, spleen, lungs, kidneys and brain were also examined histopathologically. The hepatic granulomas consisted of the following four type cells; exudate macrophages (type I), PO-negative macrophages (type II), Kupffer cells (type III), and other inflammatory cells (type IV) such as neutrophils and lymphocytes. The percentages of the granulomacomposing cells in group A were 10.3% (type I), 27.3% (type II), 52.9% (type III) and 9.5% (type IV), respectively. In contrast in group B, type II cells outnumbered type III cells by a ratio of 53. In group B, necrosis and hemorrhage were observed in the granuloma. The lesions in the lungs changed from granulomatous to cystic ones after suppression of the Kupffer cell functions. These results suggest that resident macrophages such as Kupffer cells may play an important role in the formation of cryptococcal lesions.     

真菌miRNA的发现

microRNAs (miRNAs)在植物和动物中大量存在,但是否在真菌中存在一直是个未解之谜.本研究组在担子菌新型隐球酵母Cryptococcus neoformans中发现了miRNA.两个miRNA,miR1和miR2,长度分别是22nt和18nt,前体是70nt,和动物miRNA相近.通过报告基因,证实miRl/2具有沉默功能.真菌miRNA的发现为研究其进化、功能等提供有用知识.     

The interaction of phagocytes and the large-sized parasite Cryptococcus neoformans: Cytochemical and ultrastructural study

Summary The yeast Cryptococcus neoformans may develop under certain conditions a large polysaccharide capsule 50–100 M in diameter and therefore cannot be phagocytosed by either polymorphonuclear cells (PMN's) or mononuclear phagocytes (MN's). The cellular defense mechanism — in various animals — against the yeast is composed by formation of ringlike structure of PMN's or MN's cells which surround the C. neoformans. Ring structures develop either in vivo or in vitro in tissue culture; destruction of the yeast occurs within 36–72 hours.Several hydrolases, such as acid phosphatase, -glucuronidase and non-specific esterase were found to be released from the phagocytic cells into the enclosed yeast. Considerable reduction of NBT used as a marker for oxidative activity was observed in MN rings at contact regions of the MN cells and the yeast. Electron microscopic studies indicate that the phagocytic cells in the ring structure have many pseudopodes penetrating into the polysaccharide capsule of the yeast. Disintegration of the capsule was observed as well as phagocytosis of its material. A possible analogy between normal phagocytosis of small-sized bodies and the ring structure obtained when large bodies are involved is discussed.