A Visit to the Zoos and Aquariums in Japan II

In the year 2013, the authors, who had already visited some Japanese aquariums and zoos in 2012 (Lange & Tai, 2012), revisited several Japanese aquariums and zoos. They were accompanied by two colleagues from Basle Zoo and the Monterey Bay Aquarium, who joined the tour.Their goals of the tour were focused on new innovative husbandry methods, on new aquarium buildings and new zoo enclosures as well as on rare Japanese endemic animals, which are never or seldom seen outside of Japan.The perfect new aquariums in Kyoto and Kitami City (Hokkaido), but also the very specialized aquariums like the Kamo Aquarium (for jellyfish) in Yamagata, the Chitose Salmon Aquarium (for salmons), the Otaru Aquarium (for sea mammals) and the Umi Kirara Kujukushima Aquarium (for the fauna of the Kujukushima island National Park) have been destinations for this trip. Besides the aquariums also the Asahiyama Zoo (new enclosures for endemic animals of Hokkaido), Kobe Oji Zoo, Kushiro Zoo (many endemic Hokkaido species), Nagasaki Bio Park, Sapporo Maruyama Zoo (new area for South East Asian animals) and the Sasebo Zoological & Botanical Garden were visited.During this tour it was obvious that neither the colleagues in Japan nor the staff in the zoos outside of Japan know sufficient enough about the conception and the husbandry methods in the different institutions in this part of the world. Therefore it is recommendable to organize such tours often for more people, thus both sides can benefit and learn from each other. This again will influence to help to keep the animals better, to attract more visitors in order to inspire them for the conservation of nature and environment.     

A survey of research in North American zoos and aquariums

To assess the current status of research in zoos and aquariums, a 36-item survey, which replicated and expanded upon an earlier survey [Finlay and Maple, 1986], was sent to 173 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions. A response rate of 71% was achieved after a second mailing. The results show that the role of research in AZA institutions has increased in the last decade. The percentage of zoos and aquariums that report conducting research, that list research as an objective of the institution, and that have a research committee/department have all increased. The number of individuals involved in research per institution has approximately doubled since 1986, and slightly less than half of responding institutions currently have a full-time position dedicated to administering research. Lack of available funds, time, and qualified personnel are the most common reasons reported for not conducting research. Zoo Biol 17:167–180, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Aquaristische Reiseeindrücke aus 8 Aquarienhäusern in Japan, Taiwan und China

In combination with the 7^th International Aquarium Congress (7^th IAC), which was held in 2008 in Shanghai, the authors visited in Japan the aquariums in Tokio, Fukushima, Enoshima, Osaka and Okinawa as well as the National Museum of Marine Biology & Aquarium in Pintung/Taiwan and in China the Beijing Aquarium and the Shanghai Ocean Aquarium, the host of the IAC. The different themes and the specialities of these aquariums are described and compared with the European situation. All the visited aquariums are not older than 20 years. Therefore their aquarium technology as well as their husbandry and presentation of animals are rather modern. Some of the differences in the exhibition are maybe based on the different cultural background or they are a result of the high visitor numbers, because almost all the aquariums are visited by more than one million visitors per year.     

Evaluation of Factors Affecting Emotional Responses in Zoo Visitors and the Impact of Emotion on Conservation Mindedness

Creating experiences for visitors that increase their biological knowledge and inspire conservation mindedness is a critical task for zoos and aquariums. A growing body of literature suggests that emotional stimulation is affected by characteristics of both the visitor and the visitor's experiences and is important for learning and inspiring pro-environmental sentiment. In this study we explored relationships between emotional experience, the factors that influence it, visitors' predispositions toward nature, and their reports of conservation mindedness after viewing three carnivore exhibits at the Bronx Zoo, USA. We surveyed visitors after they viewed tigers, African wild dogs, and spotted hyenas during baseline conditions or when the animals were given environmental enrichment to stimulate natural behavior and activity. We asked visitors to report their predispositions toward nature, the extent of positive emotional experiences they had while viewing the animals, and how the experience affected their conservation mindedness. Environmental enrichment significantly increased animal behavioral diversity, particularly for African wild dogs, and contributed to visitors reporting having had an up-close encounter with the animals, both of which affected the strength of positive emotional experiences at the exhibits. The extent of eye contact with the animal and the animal species also significantly affected emotional responses. Women reported stronger emotional experiences than men, however younger adults did not experience stronger positive emotional responses than older participants. Visitors' predispositions toward nature and emotional responses were significantly correlated. Strong predispositions toward nature and emotional experiences produced significantly stronger reports of conservation mindedness in visitors as a result of their experience at the exhibit. These findings have implications for animal husbandry, exhibit design, education, and outreach efforts for zoos.     

Factors facilitating research: a survey of zoo and aquarium professionals

The purpose of this survey was to assess the background, training, and perceptions of professionals conducting and coordinating research at North American zoos and aquariums accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and to identify the factors they considered critical to successful scientific programs. We analyzed responses to a 57‐item questionnaire from 231 professionals at AZA zoos and aquariums. The majority of those surveyed conducted behavioral research, conducted research only in a captive setting, held curatorial positions, had their salaries supported by their institutions' operating budget, and considered themselves part of a successful scientific program. About 30% of those we surveyed possessed a doctoral research degree in comparison to 55% possessing lesser level degrees—19% with master's, 34% with bachelor's, and 2% with other degrees. Support from the chief executive officer and personnel dedicated to conducting scientific programs were judged as the two most important factors contributing to the successful scientific programs. The information provided in this report may be used to develop and improve both established and newly initiated scientific programs in zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biol 29:663–675, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Measuring Animal Personality for Use in Population Management in Zoos: Suggested Methods and Rationale

The concept that animals have personalities is gaining traction in the scientific community and is well established in zoos and aquariums. Applying knowledge of animal personalities has occurred more slowly and is most often only considered informally. However, animal personalities are likely to affect the welfare animals experience in captivity and thus should be of primary concern to zoo managers. In addition, animal personality likely affects the outcomes of zoo guest experiences and potentially guests' conservation‐related behavior. With over 1,000,000 animals in the care of zoos internationally and hundreds of millions of visitors annually, it would be prudent and beneficial to maximize our use of animal personality data in zoos to effect positive conservation outcomes. Understanding how to broaden population planning techniques to include measures of animal personality and the important outcomes of welfare and education value is of prime importance to the zoo industry. In order to succeed, it is necessary to employ techniques that reliably assess animal personalities and provide measures that can easily be used in population planning models. We discuss the outcomes of recent workshops designed to determine the best techniques for measuring animal personalities in the zoo setting with the goal of incorporating personality into population planning. Zoo Biol 31:1;–12, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Individual-level variability among trust criteria relevant to zoos and aquariums

Prior research into the conceptual underpinnings of the public's institutional trust in zoos and aquariums has suggested a range of ethical dimensions that set these types of cultural institutions apart from others in the museum sector. As the recognized holders, care-takers, and nurturers of wild animals, zoos and aquariums are sustained at least in part by the public's perception that these activities are legitimate pursuits and essential to the long-term conservation of the natural world. This paper builds on recent research that identified the ethical dimensions of trust in zoos and aquariums and assessed their distribution among the U.S. public by analyzing survey responses with respect to the importance of trust criteria. We hypothesized that distinct clusters of individuals, as defined by their response to trust criteria items, would emerge and that these clusters would prioritize different dimensions in their trust of zoos and aquariums. Using k-means clustering, we identified four relevant clusters of individuals on seven dimensions of institutional trust in zoos and aquariums. Based on these clusters, we suggest strategies for addressing what may be necessary for zoos and aquariums to claim authority as agents promoting conservation behaviors in society.     

Achieving True Sustainability of Zoo Populations

For the last 30 years, cooperative management of irreplaceable animal populations in zoos and aquariums has focused primarily on the goal of minimizing genetic decay within defined time frames, and large advances have been made in technologies to optimize genetic management of closed populations. However, recent analyses have shown that most zoo programs are not projected to meet their stated goals. This has been described as a lack of achieving “sustainability” of the populations, yet by definition a goal of managed decay is not a plan for sustainability. True sustainability requires management of the resource in manner that does not deplete its value for the future. Achieving such sustainability for many managed populations may require changing from managing isolated populations to managing populations that are part of a broader metapopulation, with carefully considered exchange between populations across a spectrum of ex situ to in situ. Managing zoo populations as components of comprehensive conservation strategies for the species will require research on determinants of various kinds of genetic, physiological, behavioral, and morphological variation and their roles in population viability, development of an array of management techniques and tools, training of population managers in metapopulation management and integrated conservation planning, and projections of impacts of management strategies on the viability of the captive populations and all populations that are interactively managed or affected. Such a shift in goals and methods would result in zoo population management being an ongoing part of species conservation rather than short‐term or isolated from species conservation. Zoo Biol. 32:19‐26, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Biology of Animal Stress: Implications for Animal Well-Being

What is environmental enrichment? During the last several decades, zoos and aquariums have come to realize (perhaps belatedly) that animals kept in captivity need environmental enrichment for their well-being (Seidensticher &; Forthman, 1998). Early zoos and aquariums tried to show as many animals as possible; hence, their exhibits were frequently small and bare to permit easy viewing, cleaning, and sterilization. Now, all have come to realize that captive animals need environmental enrichment for their health and for the education and increased expectations of visitors to zoos and aquariums.     

Welfare evaluations of nonhuman animals in selected zoos in the Philippines

This study evaluated 3 zoos in the Philippines: the Wildlife Rescue Center and Mini Zoo, Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden, and Cavite Botanical and Zoological Park to determine the standards of nonhuman animal welfare. The study measured and compared the cage sizes of various animals to the international minimum standards. According to the categories of management and husbandry, the 3 zoos showed a significant difference on the mean scores of ranking. The Wildlife Rescue Center and Mini Zoo ranked first, followed by Manila Zoo and Cavite Zoo. Although most cages in the 3 zoos followed acceptable minimum standards, the study identified several problems related to animal welfare, hygiene, husbandry, and management. Based on the evaluations, the study recommended that the 3 zoos improve animal welfare standards.     

The influence of feeding,enrichment, and seasonal context on the behavior of Pacific Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens)

Though some research exists concerning general behavior and activity patterns of Walruses in zoos or aquariums, less is known about how these patterns change in response to various environmental and temporal contexts. This study presents two studies assessing behavioral changes in relation to feeding period, object enrichment (OE), and season in a social group of four Pacific Walruses at the New York Aquarium. Study 1 examined behavior in relation to feeding context (nonfeed, prefeed, postfeed); data were collected over a three‐week period, resulting in 47 observation sessions for each feeding context. Study 2 examined behavior in relation to OE and season; data were collected in two phases resulting in 12 enrichment and 9 no‐enrichment (NE) observation sessions (Phase 1), and 21 enrichment and 18 NE observation sessions (Phase 2). Study 1 showed that after feeding, oral behavior increased while social behavior and total swim frequency decreased. In Study 2, both swim frequency and social behavior were found to interact with OE and phase, while oral behavior remained constant across all conditions. As in the wild, both studies found all animals to be swimming the majority of the time. Though every animal spent much of its swim time engaged in an Individual Swimming Pattern (ISP), both studies showed that the proportion of ISP (in relation to total time swimming) remained stable across all contexts, suggesting a potential functional role of the ISPs. These results are discussed in light of the ongoing debate over the role of stereotypies in welfare assessment. Zoo Biol 29:397–404, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Enrichment for Giant Pacific Octopuses: Happy as a Clam?

What is environmental enrichment? During the last several decades, zoos and aquariums have come to realize (perhaps belatedly) that animals kept in captivity need environmental enrichment for their well-being (Seidensticher & Forthman, 1998). Early zoos and aquariums tried to show as many animals as possible; hence, their exhibits were frequently small and bare to permit easy viewing, cleaning, and sterilization. Now, all have come to realize that captive animals need environmental enrichment for their health and for the education and increased expectations of visitors to zoos and aquariums.     

Buying time for wild animals with zoos

Zoos and aquariums exhibit many rare species, but sustain few for long periods. Demanding genetic, demographic, and behavioral requirements are a part of the sustainability challenge, and historical zoo goals and limiting animal management objectives are another, but they have been overtaken by worldwide wildlife population contraction and endangerment. New policies are essential for zoo continuance and, if vanishing species are to be helped by zoo propagation, they must be given priority. However, zoos have little animal carrying capacity and propagation must be much more sharply focused. In addition, it is becoming urgent that zoos help to support parks and reserves and, where possible, manage some especially endangered species mutually with parks.     

What Is the Future for Zoos and Aquariums?

ABSTRACT

Animal welfare concerns have plagued the professional zoo and aquarium field for decades. Societal differences remain concerning the well-being of animals, but it appears a shift is emerging. Scientific studies of animal welfare have dramatically increased, establishing that many previous concerns were not misguided public empathy or anthropomorphism. As a result, both zoo and aquarium animal welfare policy and science are now at the center of attention within the world’s professional zoos and aquariums. It is now possible to view a future that embraces the well-being of individual captive exotic animals, as well as that of their species, and one in which professional zoos and aquariums are dedicated equally to advancing both. Though the ethics of keeping exotic animals and animals from the wild in captivity are still a contentious subject both outside and even within the profession, this study argues. We argue that this path forward will substantially improve most zoo and aquarium animals' welfare and could significantly reduce societal concerns. If animal welfare science and policy are strongly rooted in compassion and embedded in robust accreditation systems, the basic zoo/aquarium paradigm will move toward a more thoughtful approach to the interface between visitors and animals. It starts with a fundamental commitment to the welfare of individual animals.     

Rambling Thoughts on Zoo Animal Collection and Conservation: A Historical Perspective

Zoo animal collections have gone through a variety of changes in recent decades. While an increasing number of species may be establishing self-sustainable populations, early specimens of some animal groups were captured and transported in wasteful and unacceptable methods, a part of history that should not be forgotten. Selection of species has shifted from individual to group decision-making processes, reflecting a different type of personnel now in charge. The fact remains, however, that zoos continue to present a popularity-driven, skewed representation of the animal kingdom to the public. Wildlife conservation has been one of the main purposes for zoos as well as zoo associations, both in Europe and America. In actuality, the concept of conservation is subject to individual interpretation and this is where a clear definition of the zoos’ role could become rather vague. An important and worthwhile task for zoos is conservation education. To counteract deep-rooted anthropomorphism in the public's mind is not easy, yet it is a necessary step to raise citizens’ environmental awareness. The ultimate results of conservation education include changing daily habits, as well as participation in grass-roots conservation movements, by citizens.     

Psychological and social well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums

Research on the behavior of animals in zoos has been conducted for decades and observations have provided information that has improved the psychological and social well-being of animals. However, research on fishes in zoos and aquariums seems to be lacking. Here we assess the current state of research on fishes in zoos and aquariums by surveying peer-reviewed literature. Our assessment differs from previous surveys in that we examine the taxonomic classes Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays) and Osteichthyes (bony fishes) separately. Our survey finds that bony fishes have been drastically underrepresented in zoo journals, more so than chondrichthyans, revealing an urgent need for zoos and aquariums to conduct research on the behavior of the bony fishes in their care, to ensure a positive state of psychological and social well-being. To plot a course for the future, we discuss the few studies that have been conducted on the behavior of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, and we discuss research conducted on bony fishes in food-fish aquaculture and biomedicine to identify the types of studies that could be conducted in zoos and aquariums. We conclude that data-driven analyses of fish behavior could aid in development of evidence-based practices that enhance the well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, just as they already do for terrestrial animals.     

Molecular systematics for taxonomic placement of a gorilla of uncertain origin

An adult male gorilla was donated from private ownership in 1994 to Zoo Atlanta and became part of the American Zoo and Aquarium Association's Gorilla Species Survival Plan. This animal, Ivan, was captured as an infant in Africa in 1964. Ambiguity regarding origin and concomitant sub‐species designation was resolved by analyzing the cytochrome oxidase II mitochondrial gene known to contain eight diagnostic sites for gorilla sub‐species. Ivan has the diagnostic profile that characterizes the western clade Gorilla gorilla gorilla. Zoo Biol 18:429–432, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The Educational Claims of Zoos: Where Do We Go from Here?

Zoos exude a certain self‐confidence regarding their roles as education providers. Indeed, the education outputs of zoos are, at face value, pretty impressive, with most investing in learning opportunities for leisure visitors, education groups and in some cases, as part of their in situ programs. However, these outputs are not necessarily reliable indicators of the educational achievements of zoos. Quantity does not necessarily equate to quality, just as outputs do not necessarily lead to outcomes. Zoo‐accreditation organizations such as the AZA and EAZA offer us clear insight into the strategic vision underpinning the education goals for zoo visitors; a heightened appreciation of the value of biodiversity and a connectedness with the natural world. Unsurprisingly, most zoos have educational goals that ally neatly with the vision of their respective accreditation body. Consequently, we are left with fairly narrow, top‐down educational goals. This does not necessarily sit well with what we know about the unpredictability of “free choice” learning in environments such as zoos and aquariums, or what is known about public science communication. Research that seeks to explore the impacts of zoo visits often focuses on evaluating performance based on educational goals and the findings are used as a means of providing evidence of institutional achievement. However, any visitor outcome that falls outside of this narrow range could well be missed by the research. In this article, we propose that research that takes unpredictable and unexpected outcomes into account is necessary and overdue. Zoo Biol. 32:13‐18, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.